ESSENTIALS 
OF DRAFTING 




Clas 



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Copyright >N^^ n /^ 



COFmiGHT DEPOSIT. 



N 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR 



A HANDBOOK ON PIPING 

359 Pages 359 Illustrations 

8 Folding Plates Postpaid, $4.00 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

A TEXTBOOK ON MECHANICAL 
DRAWING AND MACHINE DRAWING 

WITH 

CHAPTERS AND PROBLEMS ON MATERIALS 

STRESSES, MACHINE CONSTRUCTION AND 

WEIGHT ESTIMATING 



BY 
CARL L. SVENSEN, B.S. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ENGINEERING DRAWING IN THE OHIO STATE 

UNIVERSITY, JR. MEM. A.S.M.E., MEM. S.P.E.E., FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR 

IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN TUFTS COLLEGE AND HEAD 

OF THE DEPARTMEMT OF MACHINE CONSTRUCTION 

AT THE FRANKLIN UNION 



SECOND PRINTING — CORRECTED 




NEW YORK 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

25 Park Place 

1919 



T253 



COPYRIGHT, I918, 1919, BY 
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 



NOV -5ISI9 



THE-PLIMPTON-PRESS 
NOEWOOD-MASS«U-S-A 



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'jx''A^''^!ik'Xk ^;i\ ^^:!/yji M !(^^^nr^i^^:^'i 



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DEDICATED TO THE AUTHORlS FRIEND 

GARDNEB^CHACE ANTHONY 

WHOSE INFLUENCE AS AN ENGINEER. 

AND TEACHER. ON THE DEVELOPMENT 

OF AMERICAN MECHANICAL DRAWING 

IS UNIVERSALLY RECOGNIZED 



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PREFACE 

The evening technical school has been rapidly developing 
during recent years. From a makeshift it is coming to occupy 
a field distinctly its own. The ambitious man attending an 
evening technical school is fully the equal of his brother at the 
day technical school and his worth is being increasingly realized. 

The foundation subjects — mathematics, mechanics, and draw- 
ing — require particular attention in evening courses, where the 
time may be somewhat limited and the needs of the student 
varied. This book has been prepared for Ohio Technical Draw- 
ing School students as part of a technical course. 

Progress in engineering work of any kind depends upon an 
intimate knowledge of mechanical drafting as the language of 
the engineering world. Its possibilities must be understood. 
The mere drawing of lines and more or less copying of exercises 
or sketching from a few models is far from the purpose of a draw- 
ing course. The value of drawing as one of the working tools to 
be treasured and used during a lifetime in the most useful of 
professions, engineering, should be realized. It is as an aid in 
the study, and later use of engineering knowledge, that drawing 
finds its place. These preliminary remarks may serve to explain 
the makeup of the book. 

The actual handling of the instruments can best be taught 
by careful individual instruction of each student, after which 
false or awkward motions should be immediately corrected. 
Inefficiency in this respect is one of the most severe handicaps of 
many "self-made" draftsmen. The treatment of the various 
subjects is necessarily somewhat brief, as it is intended that per- 
sonal instruction should be given in each subject. 

In the first studies the student is taught to represent each object 
in strict conformity to the laws of projection. All lines are 
drawn, all intersections are shown, and invisible surfaces are all 

vii 



viii PREFACE 

indicated by dotted lines. For simple parts such drawings are 
easily read and they are generally used in the drafting room. 
When more complicated pieces are met with or where whole 
machines or constructions are to be represented, such a method 
would lead to great confusion and often would produce a drawing 
which it would be almost impossible to read. The time nec- 
essary would be very great even for an expert. In such cases 
the full lines representing the visible surfaces are shown, but the 
intersections and invisible surfaces are not all drawn in. The 
selection of what lines to draw and what lines to leave out is an 
important study in itself. 

Furthermore there are many representations of parts which 
are or appear to be violations of orthographic projection, which 
are used because practice has shown that they convey the idea 
to the workman more completely or easily. Other representa- 
tions are used to save the draftsman's time, or in the interests 
of simplicity. Almost anything which will make a drawing more 
readily intelligible is justified. This statement must be used 
with caution, as what will seem plain to a man familiar with the 
work may not be so plain to the workman or other reader. 

A drawing has one great purpose, and that is to be useful. 
To this end lines may be added or left out, shading may be used, 
or notes may be put on. As an expression in the engineering 
language each drawing should have only one meaning, and 
should state that meaning with the least possible chance for 
misinterpretation. Many of these idiomatic expressions of the 
engineering language will be considered in the later chapters. 

The chapters on Materials and Stresses, Machine Construc- 
tion, and Estimation of Weights are brief treatments of subjects 
which are necessary for the making of intelligent drawings. Con- 
siderable elementary machine design is included as belonging in 
a practical treatment of mechanical drafting, for the author does 
not look with favor upon fine distinctions between ''subjects." 
It is the "usability" which really counts. 

The subjects are arranged to suit the author's convenience, 
but they may be taken in a different order if desired. The 
problems are placed in one chapter at the end of the book, so that 
a selection may be easily made. These problems are suggestive, 
and may be amplified by the teacher, who should make a free 
use of actual shop blueprints and castings. 



PREFACE IX 

The author beheves that the highest grade work can be done 
by evening school men, and in an experience of many years has 
always found that they are ever ready to meet the most exacting 
requirements when satisfied that what they are receiving is really 
worth while. 

Appreciation of the helpful criticisms of Prof. Thos. E. French 

is here expressed. 

CARL L. SVENSEN 
Columbus, Ohio, 
Sept. 1, 1917. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface v 

CHAPTER I 

Drawing Instruments and Materials 1 

Instruments and Materials — Use of the T Square and Triangles — • 
Use of the Scale — Drawing Pencils — Use of the Compasses — 
Use of the Dividers — Use of the Ruling Pen — Character of Lines. 

CHAPTER II 

Lettering 7 

Lettering — Gothic Letters — Proportions and Forms — Letter Spac- 
ing — Titles — Bill of Material. 

CHAPTER III 

Constructions 13 

Essential Constructions — Angles — Circles — Plane Figures — To 
Bisect a Line — To Bisect an Angle — To Divide a Line into any 
Number of Equal Parts — To Copy an Angle — To Construct a 
Triangle, having given the Three Sides — To Construct an Equi- 
lateral Triangle — • To Construct a Regular Hexagon — To Con- 
struct a Regular Octogon — To Draw an Arc of a Circle, having a 
Given Radius, and Tangent to Two Given Lines — To Draw a 
Circle, Passing through any Three Points not in the same Straight 
Line — To find the Length of an Arc of a Circle — To Draw a Tan- 
gent to a Circle at any Given Point — To Draw the Arc of a Circle 
of given Radius, Tangent to an Arc and a Straight Line — The 
Ellipse — • To Draw an Ellipse by the Concentric Circle Method — 
To draw an Ellipse by the Trammel Method — To Draw a Curve 
having the Appearance of an Ellipse by Means of Circular Arcs — 
The Involute — To Draw the Involute of a Triangle — To Draw 
the Involute of a Circle — The Parabola — To Draw an Equilateral 
Hyperbola, 

CHAPTER IV 

Projections 23 

Purpose of Drawings — Orthographic Projection — The Planes of 
Projection — Some Rules — Dotted Lines — Auxihary Views — 
Required Views — The Imaginary Cutting Plane — Representa- 
tion of Cut Surfaces. 

xi 



xii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER V 

Materials and Stresses 31 

Materials — Cast Iron — White Iron — Gray Iron — Properties of 
Cast Iron — Wrought Iron — Properties of Wrought Iron — Steel — 
Bessemer Process — Open Hearth Process — Properties of Steel 
— Malleable Iron — Suggestions for Selection of Material — Loads 
and Stresses — Axial Stresses — Unit Stresses — • Modulus of 
Elasticity — Ultimate Strength — Factor of Safety — Average 
Values. 

CHAPTER VI 

Screw Threads 40 

Uses of Screw Threads — The Helix — Parts of a Screw — Right- 
and Left-hand Screws — Forms of Screw Threads — Multiple 
Threads — Split Nut and Square Thread — Conventional Repre- 
sentation of Screw Threads — Threaded Holes — Strength of 
Screw Threads. 

CHAPTER VII 

Bolts and Screws 48 

U. S. Standard Bolts — Bolts — Studs — Threaded Holes — Machine 
Screws — Cap Screws — Cap Nuts — Set Screws — Locking 
Devices. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Riveting 57 

Riveting — Rivet Heads — Lap Joints — Butt Joints — Calking — 
Miscellaneous Connections — Rolled Steel Shapes. 

CHAPTER IX 

Working Drawings 62 

Classes of Drawings — Special Detail Drawings — How to Make a 
Drawing — Tracing — Order for Inking Lines — Assembly Draw- 
ings — Exceptions to True Projection — Blueprints. 

CHAPTER X 

Sections 71 

Sectional Views — Broken and Revolved Sections — Location of 
Sectional Views — Objects not Sectioned — Dotted Lines on Sec- 
tional Views — Sections of Ribs and Symmetrical Parts. 

CHAPTER XI 

Dimensioning 77 

Purpose of Dimensions — Dimension Lines — Elements of Dimen- 
sioning — General Rules — Systems of Dimensioning — Location 
of Dimensions — Shafting — Tapers — Small Parts — Methods of 
Finishing — Checking Drawings. 



CONTENTS xiii 

i»AGE 

CHAPTER XII 

Machine Construction 87 

Machine Operations — Drills — The Steam Engine — Pistons — 
Sliding Bearings — Wear and Pressure — Stuffing Boxes — Use- 
ful Curves and Their Application — Fillets and Rounds — Arcs and 
Straight Lines — Flanged Projections — Flange Edges — Flanges 
and Bolting — Keys. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Sketching 98 

Uses of Sketching — Materials for Sketching — Making a Sketch — • 
Taking Measurements — Some Ideas on Sketching. 

CHAPTER XIV 

Estimation of Weights 105 

Accuracy — Weights of Materials — Weight of Loose Materials — 
Weight of Castings — Methods of Calculation — Weight of Cylin- 
der Head — Weight of Plunger Barrel — Weight of Forgings. 

CHAPTER XV 

Piping 112 

Piping Materials — Pipe Fittings — Standard Pipe — Pipe Threads. 

CHAPTER XVI 

Intersections 117 

The Line of Intersection — Intersection of a Vertical Prism and a 
Horizontal Prism — Intersection of a Vertical Prism and an IncHned 
Prism, Visibility of Points — Intersecting Cylinders — Choice of 
Cutting Planes — Connecting Rod Intersection. 

CHAPTER XVII 
Developments 123 

Surfaces — Development of a Prism — Development of a Cylinder — 
Development of a Pyramid — The Development of a Cone — De- 
velopment of a Transition Piece. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Picture Drawing 130 

Isometric Drawing — Isometric and Non-Isometric Lines — Angles 
— Positions of the Axes — Construction for Circles — Oblique 
Drawing. 



xiv CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER XIX 

Shade Line Drawings 136 

Shade Lines — System in Common Use — Surface Shading — Shad- 
ing Screw Threads and Gears — Special Surface Representations 
— Patent Office Drawing. 

CHAPTER XX 
Drawing Questions, Problems and Studies 141 

Index 181 



ESSENTIALS OF DEAFTING 

CHAPTER I 
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 

Instruments and Materials. — Drawing instruments and 
materials should be selected with care, and under the guidance 
of an experienced draftsman or teacher. The really necessary 
equipment consists of the following: 

Set of case instruments comprising: 

6-inch compasses with fixed needle point leg, 

removable pencil leg and removable pen leg, 

5-inch dividers, 

5-inch ruling pen, 

Bow pencil, bow dividers, bow pen. 
24-inch T square. 
16 " X 20 " drawing board. 
6-inch 45° triangle. 
10-inch 30° X 60° triangle. 
Irregular curve. 
12-inch architect's scale. 
One dozen thumb tacks. 
2 H and 4 H or 6 H drawing pencils. 
Drawing paper. 
Erasive and cleaning rubbers. 
Pencil pointer. 

Black waterproof drawing ink. 
Lettering pens and pen holder. 
Pen wiper. 

Use of the T Square and Triangle. — The T square is used for 
drawing horizontal Hues, with the head always against the left- 
hand edge of the board, Fig. 1. The upper edge of the T square 
blade is always used, and lines are drawn from left to right. The 

1 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



triangles are used for drawing all other lines. Vertical lines are 
drawn by placing a triangle against the upper edge of the T 
square and drawing upward along the vertical edge, which should 
be placed toward the head of the T square, as shown in Fig. 2. 

Use of the Scale. — The scale is used for laying off distances. 
Whenever practicable, drawings should be made full size. If a 







1 








1 




Thumb TacM 

Fofier 

fiori^ontal Line 
Dirvction — t^ ^ 






T-s<f. S/ode o 1 


_ 














1 Boori^ 







Fig. I 




Fig. 2 



reduced scale must be used to accommodate the size of paper, 
choose one which will show the object clearly, and which will 
not require great crowding of dimensions. For mechanical 
drafting, the architect's open divided scale, shown in Fig. 3, is 
most used. There are many forms, both flat and triangular in 
section. The following divisions are in general use, Vs? V4> Vs, 
V2, V4, 1, IV2, and 3 inches to the foot. The scale 3 " =1' means 
that the drawing is one fourth the size of the object, or that each 




one fourth inch on the drawing represents 1 inch on the object. 
In this case, the 3 inches is divided up into 12 parts, each of 
which represents 1 inch. These parts are further divided to 
represent quarter inches and other fractions. The double mark 
CO following a figure means inch or inches; the single mark (') 
means foot or feet. A common scale graduated to V32 of an 
inch may be used for many reductions. In such cases use the 
half inch for an inch in drawing one half size; the quarter inch 
for an inch in drawing one fourth size, etc. For half size one 
sixteenth becomes one eighth, and similarly for other divisions. 



DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 



Fig. 3 shows the distance 2 feet, 5V2 inches, laid off with the 
scale of 3" = 1'. 

Drawing Pencils. — It is necessary to have pencils of the 
right degree of hardness and properly sharpened. For lettering, 



f^ig.^ Fig, 5 



Fig. 6 




Fig. 7 



figuring, laying out, etc., a long conical point should be used. 
A 2 H pencil will be found satisfactory. For the drawing itself, 
one 4 H pencil and one 6 H pencil, carefully sharpened, are needed. 
After removing the wood, Fig. 4, the lead is made slightly conical. 
Fig. 5, and then formed as in Fig. 6, using fine sandpaper or a 
file. Fig. 7 shows enlarged side and front views of the lead. 





start H er^ 





Fig. 10 



Use of the Compasses. — The compasses, Fig. 8, are used 
for drawing large circles. The needle point should be adjusted 
with the shoulder downward and so that the point extends about 
V64 inch beyond the pen point, Fig. 9. A 4 H or 6 H lead should 
then be sharpened as for the drawing pencil, and placed in the 
pencil leg. Remove the pen point from the compasses, insert 



4 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

the pencil leg, and fasten it. Then adjust the lead so that the 
end of it is about V64 inch above the needle point, Fig. 10. The 
joints in the legs are for the purpose of keeping the point and 
pencil perpendicular to the paper. The compasses should be 
operated with one hand (the right hand). The needle point 
should be placed in the center, and the marking point revolved 
clockwise. Once around is enough, starting at the point in- 
dicated in Fig. 11. 

The bow instruments are used for small circles and divisions. 
The method of setting the points and using is the same as for 
the large compasses and dividers. 

Use of the Dividers. — The dividers are used for transferring 
distances and for dividing lines. They should be handled with 





A ^ J 

Srxi \ Center / . > 

Fig. le.' 

the right hand. When dividing a line, the points should be 
revolved in alternate directions, as indicated in Fig. 12. To 
divide a line into three parts, first set the dividers at a distance 
estimated to be about one third. Try it, and if too short, increase 
the distance between the divider points by one third of the re- 
maining distance. If too long, decrease the distance between 
the divider points by one third of the distance which they extend 
beyond the end of the line. Repeat the operation if necessary. 

The Use of the Ruling Pen. — The ruling pen is used for inking 
the straight lines, after the pencil drawing is finished. Ink is 
placed between the nibs of the pen by means of a quill which is 
attached to the ink bottle stopper. Care should be taken to 
prevent any ink from getting on the outside of the pen. The 
proper amount of ink is shown in Fig. 13. The pen should be 
held in a vertical position, and guided by the T square or triangle. 
It may be inclined slightly in the direction of the line which is 



DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 5 

being drawn, but the point must always be kept from the angle 
formed by the paper and the guide. Do not hold the pen too 
tightly, or press against the guide. Both nibs of the pen must 
touch the paper. Frequent cleaning of the pen is necessary to 
obtain good lines. The same methods apply to the compass 
and bow pens. 

Character of Lines. — All pencil lines should be fine, clear, and 
sharp. For most purposes continuous pencil hues may be used. 
The character and weight of ink lines for use on drawings, may 
be found by reference to Fig. 14. 

A F 

B -— G 

C H ^_ 

D J - 



E K 

Fig. /^. 

A. Full line for representing visible surfaces. 

B. Dotted line used with A for representing invisible surfaces. 

Dots about Vi6 inch long and very close together. 

C. Center line — very fine dot and dash. 

D. Witness line — short dashes. 

E. Dimension line — long dashes, or fine full line. D and E 

are often made the same. 

F. Fine line for shaded drawings. 

G. Dotted line for shaded drawings. 

E. Shade line for shaded drawings, about three times thick- 
ness of fine line. 

J . and K. for special purposes, representing conditions not 
specified above. 

When shade hnes are not used, a fairly wide Hne should be 
adopted as wearing better, and giving better blueprints. The 
width of line will depend somewhat upon the drawing. Large 
simple drawings require a wide hne, while small intricate draw- 



6 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

ings necessitate narrower lines. Drawings which are large and 
still have considerable detail in parts require more than one 
width of line. An experienced draftsman will use wide lines 
for the large and simple parts, reducing them for the complicated 
places in such manner that the different widths of lines are not 
noticeable. The student is cautioned to proceed slowly and 
strive for a uniform width of line until experience teaches discre- 
tion. 

Center lines are drawn very fine, and are composed of dots 
and dashes. All symmetrical pieces should have a center line. 
All circles should have both horizontal and vertical center lines. 

Much information concerning the many different kinds of 
drawing devices used by draftsmen for saving time and other 
purposes can be found in the catalogues of drawing material 
companies. 



CHAPTER II 
LETTERING 

Lettering. — The subject of lettering in connection with work- 
ing drawings is of great importance. Neat, legible letters, made 
free hand and with fair speed, are required. This chapter will 
deal with such letters. Those who wish to pursue the subject 
further should procure a good book on lettering, such as French 
& Meiklejohn's '^Essentials of Lettering," published by McGraw- 
Hill Company, New York, or Daniels' ''Freehand Lettering,'' 
published by D. C. Heath & Company, Boston, Mass. Either of 
these books may be obtained for $L00. 

Great care and continual practice are necessary to do good 
lettering, but the appearance of neatness, the greater ease of 
reading, and lessened liability of mistakes, make up for the extra 
time and work. 

Commercial Gothic Letters. — Commercial gothic and lower 
case letters or small letters are the forms most used by engineers 
and draftsmen. These are shown in Fig. 15, with the proportions 
and directions for drawing the various lines. The vertical capi- 
tals and lower case letters are shown in Fig. 16. The same pro- 
portions and order of strokes apply to the vertical letters. The 
inclined letters should have a slope of about 3 to 8, as showTi in 
Fig. 17. Some draftsmen use the 60° slope, but this does not 
give as pleasing a letter (Fig. 18). 

In all cases very hght pencil guide lines should be drawn to 
limit the tops and bottoms of the letters. The size of the letters 
is determined to some extent by the character of the work, but 
for most drawings the capitals should be Vs inch high, and the 
small letters about two thirds as high (Fig. 17). For penciling 
use a 2 H pencil, with a well sharpened round point. For inking, 
a ball point pen may be used for fairly large letters, and Gillotts 
404 or 303 for small letters. The pen may be dipped into the 
ink and the surplus shaken back into the bottle, or the quill 
may be used as with the ruling pen. For good work, the pen 

7 



8 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



U/v/rs 



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I ly V 



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P' P' )9' ,S' / 2 3 






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abed Gif g h rj 
\k I m n op q^ r 
s f u V w x^y z 

Fig. 15 

point must be kept clean, requiring frequent wiping. The pen 
point should be kept pointed toward the top of the paper. 

Proportions and Forms. — The proportions and shapes of the 
various letters should be studied and drawn to a large scale. 
For purposes of study, the letters are divided into groups. The 
following points should be observed. Rounded letters, such as 



LETTERING 9 



I LT H F E NM 
Z YA K V WX 
O C G U J D 
B P R S I 2 3 
4 5 6 7 8 9 a 
abed efghij 
kimnopqrs 
t u V w X y z 

rig. 16 

C, J, 0, Q, and S, may extend very slightly outside of the hmiting 
lines. Pointed letters, like A, V, and W, may have the point 
extending very slightly above or below the guide lines. The 
horizontal bar in the letters B, E, F, H, and R is very slightly 
above the middle, and for the letter P it is very slightly below 



10 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



the middle of the vertical height. For the letter A the bar is 
placed about one third the height of the letter. The letter W 
is wider than it is high. The two outside strokes of the M are 
parallel. 

Letter Spacing. — The spacing between the letters when 
combined to form words will vary with different arrangements. 
The only general rule which can be given is that the area between 




r/g. /7 



F/g. /a 



the letters should be about equal. A few illustrations will be 
given, showing the positions of some combinations of letters. 
When such letters as A and T, or A and F, are used, they should 
in general be placed close together, as in Fig. 19. A few words 
are shown in Fig. 20. In the lines marked wrong the letters are 
equal distances apart. In the lines marked right the letters 
are spaced so that the areas between them are about equal. The 






r/g. /9 



combination of letters in each word, or the combination of words 
in a line, will determine the spacing of the letters. 

Titles. — The matter of titles for drawings is subject to great 
variation. The titles for detail drawings may or may not con- 
tain the name and location of the concern. The name of the 
machine, its size and number, the names of the details, scale, 
date, and names or initials of the draftsman and engineer, should 
be given. An example is shown in Fig. 21. Assembly drawings 
generally have more elaborate titles. Good titles cannot be 
made by rule, though a few suggestions may be of assistance. 
It is often advisable to center the lines composing the title. This 



LETTERING 



11 



WRONG 



RIGHT 




wron; 



RIGHT 



Fig. 20 

may be done by counting from each end of each line toward the 
center, and placing the middle letter or space on the center line. 
The Une can then be completed by working in opposite directions 
from the center hne. The important facts should be given due 



500 GALLON 
STEAM JACKETED KETTLE 



SCALE /i=/Foof- 
DRAWN BY D FA. 
TRACED BY W. E. 
CHECKED BY C.S. 



APPROVED BY-t^s^ 
DATE Sept /2. /9/7 
ORDER NO. B-462 
REVISED Jan. 4. 19/ Q 



Draw. No. 4-C-I45 

Fig. 21 



12 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



prominence. This may be done by using large letters, by using 
heavier or blacker letters, by wide spacing between letters, or 
by using extended letters. The element of time should be con- 
sidered in the selection of letters. In general, the title should 
be placed in the lower right-hand corner of the drawing, and 



OHIO TECHNICAL 
DRAWING SCHOOL 
CoLi/MBus, Ohio. 



CYLINDER FOR 
4^5 i/ERT ENGINE 
Full Size 



Droivn by J. /< 
Traced by J, /f. 
Approi'ed by -jy^^.-c/. 
Dote Sept. /2, 1917 



rig. ^2 

may or may not be ''boxed in" (Fig. 21). Some concerns use a 
title extending across the end of the drawing, in which case it 
forms a ''record strip" (Fig. 22). 

Bill of Material. — A bill of material is often put upon each 
detail drawing in connection with the title. Sometimes a separate 



Part 
No 


Name of Part 


No 
Want ELD 


Material 


Pattern 
No. 


/ 


Spindle 


1 


Steel 




2 


Spur Cenfer 


/ 


Steel 




3 


Cap 3cre^ 


4 


Steel 




4 


Cone Sef 3creu\^ 


1 


Steel 




3 


Bo^ Pins 


2 


Steel 




6 


Thru 5 f- Screv^ 


1 


Steel 




7 


Clamp Screi^ 


1 


Steel 




S 


Box 


2 


Brass 


K-^5 


9 


dasher 


1 


Brass 


W-/33 


/o 


Thrust Check Nut 


/ 


Steel 





r/g. 23 

sheet is made containing a Hst of drawings, material, number 
required, pattern number, location, etc., for the entire machine 
or construction. Both methods may be used together. The 
advantages of a separate list are apparent in certain classes of 
machines where some drawings are used for many different ma- 
chines. Bolts, pins, keys, and similar small parts are often 
given a number, which is used to designate them. The applica- 
tion and uses of lists are so varied that they must be learned for 
the company where one is employed. A material hst is shown 
in Fig. 23. 



CHAPTER III 
CONSTRUCTIONS 

Essential Constructions. — Geometry forms the basis of the 
constructions used in the making of drawings. A knowledge of 
some of the principles of geometry is therefore essential. A 
point indicates position in space. When a point is moved it 




Fbra//e/ Lines 




F/g.2^ 



rig. es 



Fig. 2 6 



generates a line, which may be either straight or curved. A 
surface may be formed by moving a line. A plane surface is one 
which will contain two intersecting straight lines. Two straight 
lines are said to be parallel when they are everywhere the same 
distance apart (Fig. 24). 

Angles. — When two lines cross they form angles. The size 
of the angle is determined by the 
amount of opening between the 
lines. The angle A, in Fig. 25, is 
greater than the angle B. If the 
lines are revolved about their in- 
tersection, so that the angle A is 
made equal to the angle 5, then 
both angles are called ''right" 
angles (Fig. 26). The angles C 
and T> are also right angles, so 
that all four angles are equal. 
As shown, each angle is one 
fourth the way around the point of intersection. 

13 




l^'9-27 



When a right 



14 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



angle is divided into 90 equal small angles, each of these small 
angles is called a ''degree." Then it takes 4 times 90, or 360, 
degrees to go all the way around the point where the hnes cross. 
Circles. — A circle is a curved line formed by moving one 
point around another point and at a constant distance from it 
(Fig. 27). The curved line is called the circumference. The 
constant distance is called the radius, and the fixed point is called 



Verh. 





3 

4 



£qui lateral- /J II sides 
equal. 



Isosceles- Two 
Sides egual. 



Scalene -All sides 
different 

Fig.ee 



Right Triangle- One angle 
is a right angle. 



the center. Lines drawn from the circumference to the center 
form angles, which are measured in degrees. Two lines crossing 
each other at the center of the circle, and making equal angles 
with each other, form four right angles, so that a circle is said to 
contain 360 degrees (written 360°). A piece of the circumference 
is called an arc. Other features of a circle are indicated in 




Quadn'lafera/ 




Square 



ffecfangle 



F/g. 29 



fThombus 



ffhomdoid 



Fig. 27. The length of the circumference is equal to the diameter 
times 3.1416. (3.1416 is called "p?, " and is often written tt.) 

Plane Figures. — A plane figure made up of three lines is called 
a triangle. There are several kinds of triangles (Fig. 28). All 
three angles of any kind of a triangle, when added together, are 
always equal to 180 degrees. The sides of the right triangle 
have a very useful relation to each other, which is illustrated in 
Fig. 28. If the length of each of the two sides is squared and 
added together, the sum will be equal to the square of the length 
of the hypotenuse; thus, in the figure, 

(3)2 + (4)2 = (5)2 



or 



9+16 =25 



CONSTRUCTIONS 



15 



A plane figure made up of four lines is called a quadrilateral. 
When the opposite sides are equal and parallel, the figure is 
called a parallelogram. There are several kinds (Fig. 29.) 

Other regular plain figures are shown in Fig. 30. 

Solids may have almost any form. The names and appear- 
ances of a number of solids are shown in Fig. 31. 

There are many geometrical constructions which are of use in 




Pentagon 



He^Ogon 





Fig.SO 



Hepfagon 



Octagon 



mechanical drawing. Detailed instructions for the solution of 
some of these problems follow. These problems should be studied 
carefully and be fully understood. They should be worked out 
with a very sharp pencil, fine lines, and extreme accuracy. 

To bisect a Line. — (To divide a line into two equal parts) : 
Given the line AB (Fig. 32). Using points A and B as centers, 



.^i;- 



Base 




Right Ob/iqL/e Truncated Hexagonal Frustum of a Rigtit Circular 

Prism Prism Tr/ongular Prism Pyramict Triangular Pyramid Cone 

Fig. 31 

and a radius greater than one half the length of the fine, draw 
the arcs 1 and 2. Through the points where these arcs cross 
each other, draw the line CD^ which will divide the line AB into 
two equal parts. The Unes CD and AB form right angles, and 
are said to be perpendicular to each other. The steps used in 
solving this problem are illustrated in Fig. 32. Any given line 
is shown at a. At 6 is shown the given line and the arc of a circle 
having a radius greater than one half the line, and its center at 
the upper end of the line. At c another arc has been drawn, 
having the same radius as before, but with its center at the lower 
end of the line. At d a line has been drawn through the inter- 
sections of the two arcs, dividing the given line into two equal 
parts. It is not necessary to draw the whole of the arcs or the 



16 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



intersecting lines. The usual appearance of the completed 
problem is shown at e. 

To bisect an Angle (Fig. 33). — Given the angle AOB. With 
as a center, and any radius, draw an arc intersecting the sides 
of the angle in points 1 and 2. With points 1 and 2 as centers, 
and a constant radius, draw arcs cutting each other at C. The 
line OC will bisect the angle. 

To divide a Line into Any Number of Equal Parts (Fig. 34). — 



A 




e ^ 



Fig. 3 2 



Given the line h'B. It is required to divide the line into five 
equal parts. From one end of the line draw another line, making 
an angle with it, such as 55. On 55, using any convenient 
setting of the dividers, step off five equal spaces. Join the end 
of the last space with the end of the given line. Through points 
4, 3, 2, and 1 draw lines parallel to 5, 5', intersecting the given 




Fig. 34 




Fig. 35 



line at points 4', 3', 2', and 1'. The line h'B will then be divided 
into five equal parts. 

Another method of dividing a line is illustrated in Fig. 35. 
From one end of the given line draw a perpendicular such as 
^' A, using the triangle and T square. Next place the scale in 
such a position that one end of any five equal divisions is at 
point 5, and the other is on the line W A. Mark opposite each 
of the divisions, and through each mark draw a vertical line 
intersecting the given line, which will then be divided into five 
equal parts. 

To copy an Angle (Fig. 36). — Given the angle AOB. To con- 
struct another angle equal to it. Draw a line A'O' . With as 
a center and any radius, draw an arc cutting the sides of the 



CONSTRUCTIONS 



17 



angle at 1 and C. With 0' as a center, and the same radius, 
draw the arc VC\ With 1' as a center, and a radius equal to 
the chord IC, draw an arc cutting the arc TC at C. Draw 
CV. Angle AV'B' will then be equal to the angle AOB. 

To construct a Triangle, having given the Three Sides (Fig. 
37). — Given the three lines A, B^ C. Draw line A', equal to Hne 




/t ]/ 




o' 



fc' 



A 0C 





Fig. 38 



A. With 1 as a center, and a radius equal to line B, draw an arc. 
With point 2 as a center, and a radius equal to line C, draw another 
arc, cutting the first arc at point 3. Join point 3 with points 1 
and 2, completing the required triangle. 

To construct an Equilateral Triangle (Fig. 38). — Given one side 
of the triangle, A. Draw line 1-2, equal in length to line A. 






Fig. 39 



Fig. ^0 



Fig ^1 



With 1 and 2 as centers, and radius equal to line A, draw arcs 
intersecting at 3. Join point 3 with points 1 and 2, completing 
the required triangle. 

To construct a Regular Hexagon (Fig. 39). — If the distance 
across corners is given, draw a circle having a radius equal to 
one half this distance. Draw the diameter 102. With points 
1 and 2 as centers, and the same radius, draw arcs cutting the 
circle at points 3, 5, 4, and 6. Join these points to complete the 
required hexagon. It will be noted that the radius used as a 
chord divides the circumference into six equal parts. The 30 X 
60 triangle may be used to construct a hexagon. Explain how. 



18 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



To construct a Regular Octagon (Fig. 40). — Given the square 
1-2-3-4. With the corners of the square as centers, and a radius 
equal to one half the diagonal, draw arcs cutting the sides of the 
square. Join the points thus found, completing the required 
octagon. An octagon may be constructed inside of a circle by 
using the 45 -degree triangle. Explain how. 

To draw an Arc of a Circle, having a Given Radius, and tangent 
to Two Given Lines (Fig 41). — Given the hues AB and BC and 




Fig.^2 




F/g. ^3 '^^^ '^^ 



thod 



Fig. ^4 



the radius R. Draw DE parallel to BC, and at a distance equal 
to R from it. Draw FG parallel to AB^ and at a distance equal 
to R from it. Where DE and EG cross, gives point 0, the center 
of the required arc. 

To draw a Circle, Passing through Any Three Points (not in the 
Same Straight Line) (Fig. 42). — Given points A^ B, and C. Draw 
lines AB and BC. Bisect lines AB and BC, using the construc- 
tion of Fig. 32. Where the bisecting lines cross at is the center 
of the required circle. The radius is the distance from to any 
of the three points. 

To find the Length of an Arc of a Circle, and measure it on a 
Straight Line (Fig. 43). — First method (when angle AOB is 
less than 60 degrees): Given arc AB with center at 0. From 
one end of the arc draw the tangent line AC. Draw line AB 
and extend it to D, making AD equal to one half of line AB. 
With D as a center, and radius DB, draw arc BC. Then AC 
will be a straight line equal in length to the arc AB. Second 
method: Draw tangent AC as before. Set the dividers at a 
small distance. Start at point B, and space off the points 1, 2, 3, 
etc., along the arc, until point 5 is reached. (Point 5 may come 
at any place near the point A.) Do not remove the dividers from 
the paper. Step back along the line the same number of spaces, 
as shown. The line AC will then be very close to the length of 



CONSTRUCTIONS 



19 



the arc AB. By taking small spaces, the chords may be assumed 
equal to the arcs. 
To draw a Tangent to a Circle at a Given Point on the Circle 

(Fig. 44). — Given point P. Place one triangle with its hypotenuse 
passing through the given point, and the center of the circle as 
indicated in first position. Using the other triangle as a base, 
turn the first triangle over into the second position, and move it 
until its hypotenuse passes through point P, when the tangent 




F/g. ^5- 



AP may be drawn. The base triangle must be held firmly in 
place in the one position. 

To draw the Arc of a Circle of Given Radius, tangent to an Arc 
and a Straight Line (Fig. 45). — Given arc AB, hne CD and radius 
R. Draw line EF parallel to CD, and at a distance R from it. 
With radius R2 = Ri+ R and center 0\ draw an arc cutting 
line EF at 0, the center of the required tangent arc. Note the 
points of tangency, which are marked T. The point of tangency 
of any two arcs is always on the line joining their centers. This 
is further illustrated in Figs. 
46 and 47, where the points 
of tangency are marked T. 

The Ellipse. — An ellipse 
(Fig. 48), is a curve formed 
by a point moving so that 
the sum of its distances from 
two fixed points is a constant. 
Each of the two points Fi and 
F2 is called a focus. The 




F/g. ^8 



longest line, AB, drawn through the center is called the major 
axis. The shortest line, CD, is called the minor axis. The con- 
stant distance is equal to the major axis. A tangent to an 
ellipse at any point may be constructed by drawing lines from 



20 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




the point to the foci. Extend the Unes and bisect the angle 
FiPE, or the angle F2PG. This bisecting line P H is the re- 
quired tangent. A line through the point P and perpendicular 
to the tangent is called a normal. The major and minor axes 

of an ellipse being given, the 
foci may be located by draw- 
ing an arc with C or Z) as a 
center, and a radius equal to 
one half of the major axis. 
This arc will cut the major 
axis at the foci. 

To draw an Ellipse by the 
Concentric Circle Method 
(Fig. 49.) — Given the major 
and minor axes AB and CD. 
With as a center, draw cir- 
■^' cles having the major and 

minor axes as diameters. Draw radial Hues OeE, OfF, etc., divid- 
ing the circles into a number of parts. Where the radial lines 
cut the large circle, draw perpendicular lines. Where the radial 
lines cut the small circle, draw horizontal lines. The intersection 
of a vertical and horizontal line from the same radial line will 
determine a point on the eUipse, as indicated at 1, 2, 3, and 4. 
Determine as many points as necessary, and draw the curve 
through them very lightly 
free hand. It may then be 
strengthened, using an ir- 
regular curve. 

To draw an Ellipse by 
the Trammel Method (Fig. 
50). — Given the major and 
minor axes AB and CD. 
On a small strip of paper 
mark off one half the minor 
axis and one half the major axis, as shown in the figure. Place 
the point 3 on the minor axis and the point 2 on the major 
axis. Make a mark on the paper opposite the point 1. Move 
the point 3 along the minor axis, keeping the point 2 on the 
major axis and moving it as indicated by the arrows. The point 
1 will then trace out the required elHpse. The usual method 




CONSTRUCTIONS 



21 



is to place the trammel in a number of positions, and make 
marks on the paper opposite the successive positions of point 1. 
To draw a Curve having the Appearance of an Ellipse, by means 
of Circular Arcs (Fig. 51). — Given the major and minor axes AB 
and CD. On the minor axis lay off 03 and 01, each equal to the 
difference between the major and the minor axis. On the major 
axis lay off 02 and 04, each equal to three fourths of 03. With 
point 1 as a center, and a radius equal to IC, draw the arc ECG. 




With 3 as a center, and the same radius, draw the arc JDH. 
With 2 and 4 as centers, and a radius equal to 2B, draw the arcs 
GBH Siud EAJ. 

The Involute. — Tie a piece of string about a lead pencil point. 
Place the triangular scale with its end resting upon a piece of 
paper. Wind the string about the scale, keeping the pencil 
point toward the paper. Hold the scale firmly with one hand. 
Keeping the string tight, and the pencil point on the paper, un- 
wind from the scale. The curve thus formed is the involute 
of a triangle. The involute of any other figure may be obtained 
by unwinding a string from the desired form. 

To draw the Involute of a Triangle (Fig. 52). — With A as a 
center, and AC as a radius, draw an arc until it reaches the ex- 
tension of side AB at point 1. With point J5 as a center, and 
1j5 as a radius, draw an arc from 1 until it reaches the extension 
of side CB at point 2. The curve may be continued by increasing 
the radius each time that it passes the extension of one of the 
sides. Compare this curve with the one drawn by means of the 
triangular scale and string. 



22 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

To draw the Involute of a Circle (Fig. 53). — Divide the arc of 
a circle into a number of equal parts. Draw the radial hues OA, 
OB, etc. At the end of each radial line draw a tangent. Starting 
at point A, lay off the distance Al on the tangent equal to the 
arc AG, using the second method of Fig. 43. Starting at B, lay 
off the distance B2 on the tangent, equal to the arc BAG. Con- 
tinuing, lay off on each tangent a distance from the point of 
tangency equal in length to the arc of the circle, measured from 
the point of tangency to the point G. 

The Parabola. — A parabola is a curve formed by a point mov- 
ing so that its distance from a line called the directrix is alw^ays 
equal to its distance from a point called the focus (Fig. 54) . To 
draw a parabola, having given the directrix CA D, and the focus F. 
Draw a line parallel to the directrix, and at any distance from it. 
Using this distance as a radius, and i^ as a center, draw an arc, 
cutting the parallel line at point 1. Draw as many lines as may 
be necessary, parallel to the directrix, and using their distances 
from the directrix as radii, with i^ as a center, draw arcs cutting 
them, thus locating points on the required parabola. 

To draw an Equilateral Hyperbola (Fig. 55). — Given the point 
P and the axes G and H. Draw horizontal and vertical lines 
through point P. On each side of point P step off equal distances 
PF, PA, AB, etc. Draw lines from to each of the points 
thus determined. Where line OA crosses the vertical line at 
point a, draw a horizontal line. Through point A draw a vertical 
line intersecting the horizontal line just drawn at point 1, a point 
on the required curve. Horizontal and vertical lines drawn 
from the diagonals will locate other points on the curve, as shown 
at 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 



CHAPTER IV 



PROJECTIONS 

Purpose of Drawings. — The representation' of objects and 
constructions having three dimensions upon a surface having 
two dimensions has been accompHshed in many ways, some of 
which are illustrated in Fig. 56. 

Drawings have two principal uses which are: 

I. To tell the shape, 
11. To tell the size. 

A drawing tells the shape by the position of the various lines, 



Isomefric 




Perspec/'fi/'e 




/ 


A 




/ 


1/ 1 



Orfhographic 



Ob/ique 



Fig. ^6 



These numbers are called 



while numbers are used to tell the size, 
dimensions. 

Orthographic Projection. — Most engineering drawings are 
made in '^orthographic projection." By this.means the shape 
and proportions of a construction may be 
accurately defined. The number of views 
depends upon the object or construction to 
be described. This can be understood by 
reference to Fig. 57, which shows two views 
of a cylinder. The upper view shows the 
circular form and the lower view shows 
the height of the cylinder. Notice that the 
diameter of the upper view is the width 
of the lower view, and that the two views 
are included between parallel vertical lines. An object requiring 
three views is shown on P'ig. 58. Note the arrangement of the 

23 




Front |/?(f>v 



Height- 



— Oiamefei — H 

F/g. 57 



24 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



views. The top and front views are included between parallel 
vertical lines, and the front and side views are included between 
parallel horizontal lines. 

The Planes of Projection. — The method of obtaining the 
views and getting them in the correct relative positions will be 

explained in con- 
nection with Figs. 
59 and 60. Con- 
sider two glass 
planes, one hori- 
zontal and one 
vertical (Fig. 59), 
with an object 
placed in the angle 
thus formed. By 
looking through the vertical plane the front of the object may be 
seen, and if this view is marked out on the glass, it is called the 
front view, elevation, or vertical projection. If, instead of look- 











Top 


^ 








Front 




5/de 














Fig. S6 



//on'zonf-af 
P/ane af/er- 



/^x/s 



i^rh'ca/ 
F/dne 




I, Prq/ecf/o/7 
L/ne 



-^^Frojecf/on Line 

F/g. S9 



ing through the glass, we consider that lines have been drawn 
from every point in the object perpendicular to the vertical 
plane, the object is said to be projected out to the vertical 
plane. The lines are called projection lines. By joining the 



PROJECTIONS 



25 



points in which the projection Hnes touch the vertical plane the 
front view will be obtained. In the same manner the top view, 
plan, or horizontal projection may be found by projecting up 




Fig. 60 

to the horizontal plane. If the joint between the two planes is 
now taken as an axis, the horizontal plane may be revolved up 
about the axis until it is in the same plane with the vertical 
plane. This brings the top view directly above the front view. 

By placing a 
third glass plane 
at one side of the 
object, and per- 
pendicular to the 
other two planes, 
as shown in Fig. 

60, a side view 
may be obtained. 
The plane con- 
taining this side 
view can be re- 
volved about the 
axis shown until 
it is in the same plane with the vertical plane. This brings the 
side view on the same line with the front view, as shown in Fig. 

61, where the three views are in their correct positions. 

Some Rules. — The following points should be thoroughly 
understood, as projection is the basis for all shop drawings. 




Left Side 



Right Side 



26 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Note the three views of the point P in Figs. 59, 60, and 61. 
Locate other points in the same manner until all points on the 
object are accounted for in each of the three views. 

Horizontal distances (as L) show the same in the top and 
front views. 

Vertical distances (as H) show the same in the front and side 
views. 



1 r 

I I 

I I 

I ii, 




D 




O 




I ... I 



Vertical distances (as W) in top view are horizontal distances 
{W) in the side view. 

The top view is the same length as the front view. 

The top view is the same width as the side view. 

The front view is the same height as the side view. 

The front of the side view is toward the front view. 

The front of the top view is toward the front view. 

The arrows (Fig. 61) indicate the relation of the front view to 
the other views. 

Note the difference between the left side view and the right 
side view. 

Lines which represent visible surfaces are full Hues. 

Lines which represent invisible surfaces are dotted hues. (See 
left side view, where it is necessary to look through the object 
in order to locate the horizontal dotted hne.) 

The top and front views of any point are always in the same 
perpendicular line. 

The front and side views of any point are always in the same 
horizontal hne. 

Dotted Lines. — The question of dotted lines is illustrated in 
Fig. 62, where two views of several objects are shown. A is a 
square prism with a square hole all the way through; B is a 
cylinder with a circular hole all the way through; C is a square 
prism with a square hole extending from the top down to the 
depth shown in the front view (note that the top views of A 
and C are the same, and that the front views show the extent 



PROJECTIONS 



27 



of the holes); Z) is a cyhnder with a hole extending up part 
way from the bottom, as shown in the front view, therefore the 
hole shows dotted in the top view; £^ is a square prism with a 
cylindrical boss on top; F is a, cylinder with a smaller cylinder 
extending downward from the under side, thus the small cylinder 
is dotted in the top view; compare F and D, which show 
that it is necessary to read both views to determine the object. 
A large number of all sorts of projection problems should be 
solved to obtain a thorough understanding of orthographic pro- 
jection. 



^at/s or Cenfer L/ne 




r/g. 63 



Auxiliary Vie'ws. — The three planes just described are per- 
pendicular to each other, like the boards coming together at the 
corner of a box. The faces of an object which are parallel to the 
three planes are projected to these planes in their true size 
and shape. It is often desirable to show the true shape of a face 
which is not parallel to any of the three regular planes. In such 
cases. Fig. 63, an extra plane called an auxiliary plane may be 
used. This extra plane is placed so as to be parallel to the in- 
clined face. The inclined face is then projected to the auxiliary 
plane by perpendicular projecting lines, as shown in Fig. 63. 

The distances W and iS then show in their true length and the 
hole shows the true shape in which it cuts the inclined face. Com- 
pare the auxiliary plane with the side plane. Notice that the 
distance W shows in its true length in the side plane, but that the 
vertical dimension is i/, which is shorter than *S. The auxiliary 



28 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



plane and the side plane may be revolved about the center line 
or axis until they are parallel to the plane of the paper. This 
has been done in Fig. 64, where the object is shown by its projec- 
tions. Note the location of the points 1, 2, 3, and 4. The center 

line of the auxiUary view 
is parallel to the inchned 
face. The width W is the 
same in the auxiliary view 
and in the side view. The 
points 1, 2, 3, and 4 are 
located in the auxiliary 
view by projecting lines 
perpendicular to the in- 
clined face which cross the 
center line at right angles. 
The distances on either 
side of the center line are then obtained from the side view 
and measured on the corresponding projection lines of the auxiliary 
view, as illustrated for point 4. 
Compare Figs. 63 and 64 carefully. 

Required Views. — A bracket is shown in pictorial form in 
Fig. 65, together with its three views in orthographic projection. 
Note the relation of the views. A picture of an object is shown 




F/g. 64- 









o 




/^/g. 65 F/g. 66 

in Fig. 66. Since most of its detail is inclined, a side view and 
auxiliary view are used. In this way true shapes are shown. 
Other views are not needed. They would be somewhat difficult 
to draw and would not add anything to what is already shown. 
Very good practice is to be had by deciding the number of views 



PROJECTIONS 



29 



and proper treatment for such machine parts and constructions 
as one encounters. 

The Imaginary Cutting Plane. — It is not always possible to 
indicate easily and clearly the interior construction of a machine 




/='/g. ey 



Fig. 6a 




t 



^ 



71 





r/g 71 



/^/g 70 



r/g. 69 



or part by means of dotted lines. In such cases resort is had to 
imaginary cutting planes which reveal the hidden parts. 

Such an imaginary cutting plane passing through the object 
of Fig. 67 is shown in Fig. 68. The part in front of the cutting 
plane is removed in Fig. 69, leaving the object as shown in Fig. 
70, where the surfaces cut by the plane are indicated by parallel 
inclined lines. Such a surface is said to be cross-hatched or 
section-lined. The view is called a section, or sectional elevation. 
In orthographic projection the two views are drawn as in Fig. 71, 
where the section occupies the same position relative to the top 
view as the front view which it replaces. Note that the top 
view is shown complete. The top edge of the cutting plane is 
shown as a center line in the top view. The rules of projection 
apply to sectional views. The object is imagined to be cut by a 
plane and the part in front of the plane removed in order to show 
the cut surfaces and the details beyond the cutting plane. 

Representation of Cut Surfaces. — The surfaces which lie in 
the imaginary plane are indicated by a series of parallel lines. 
Different pieces are shown by changing the direction of the lines. 
The width of spacing for section lines is determined by the area 
to be sectioned. Different materials are sometimes indicated by 



30 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



different forms of section lining. Fig. 72 gives the forms sug- 
gested by a committee of the American Society of Mechanical 




Babbitt or 
White tyieta/ 




Otass 



p;. ^:y>;::;;:A:-;:/.;;cS 



Concrete 



fiock 




Origina/ Fitting 
Elartti 




/Ituminum 



Water 




Sand 




Rubber, Vutconite 
or Insutat/on 



Puddte 



Astiter 




Other Ma fen a ts 



Fig. 72 ,^ 

Engineers. The character of sectioning should not be depended 
upon to tell the material. It should always be given in a note 
if it is not perfectly evident. 



CHAPTER V 
MATERIALS AND STRESSES 

Materials. — Engineering constructions must carry loads and 
transmit motions. For such purposes various materials are made 
use of according to their adaptability. The most used material 
is iron in its different forms — cast iron ; wrought iron ; steel ; 
and the steel alloys. In addition to iron there are the yellow 
metals, or brass and bronze compositions, white metals or babbitt, 
tin, lead, etc., and the various timbers. 

It is important for the draftsman to know something of the 
properties of these materials, the methods of forming into ma- 
chine parts, and the relative expense, so that a proper selection 
of material may be made for the particular case in hand. 

Cast Iron. — Cast iron is a hard, brittle, granular substance 
obtained by burning the impurities from various ores, the most 
common being 

Magnetic Oxide, or Magnetite 
Ferric Oxide, or Red Hematite 
Brown Hematite 
Spathic Ore 

Cast iron contains carbon and various impurities, such as 
silicon, manganese, phosphorus, sulphur, etc. 

White Iron. — There are two principal kinds of cast iron : 
white cast iron, in which the carbon is chemically combined, and 
gray cast iron, in which the carbon is free or mixed in the form 
of graphite. White cast iron contains a small amount of carbon, 
and is very hard and brittle. It is used in the manufacture of 
wrought iron and steel. White cast iron is very difficult to 
machine. 

Gray Iron. — Gray cast iron contains some carbon in chemical 
combination and a considerable amount in the form of graphite, 
which is mixed with the iron. Gray iron is softer than white 
iron and is easily machined. It contains from 0.5 per cent to 
1 per cent of combined carbon up to 2 per cent. 

31 



32 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Properties of Cast Iron. — Cast iron is the most useful of 
metals, as it can be readily melted and cast into any desired form 
by first making a mold. For this reason it is adapted for making 
complicated shapes. Its cheapness renders it available where 



IH!llll'intiiltiii'li!^U»Hlil 





Fig. 73 



Fig. 74 



rigidity and weight are required. Cast iron cannot be welded 
and has very little elasticity, so that it is not adapted for use 
where shocks and sudden loads are to be cared for. 

Cast iron has a crystalline structure, and when cooling the 
crystals form at right angles to the surface. Where square 
corners are encountered the arrangement is as indicated in Fig. 




rig. 75 

73, in which fracture is likely to occur along a6, called the plane of 
fracture. This may be prevented by rounding, as in Fig. 74. 
Cast iron expands at the moment of solidifying, but shrinks upon 
cooling. This action sets up cooling strains in the casting, espe- 
cially if there exists a considerable variation in the thickness of 
the section in the different parts of the piece. For this reason 
a uniform cooling arrangement is always desirable, and sudden 
changes in section should be avoided. 



MATERIALS AND STRESSES 



33 



Cast iron is about four times as strong in compression as it is in 
tension. 

Wrought Iron. — Wrought iron is almost pure iron, obtained 
by melting pig iron and squeezing out the impurities while it is 
in a plastic state. For such purposes a puddhng furnace (Fig. 
75) is used. Iron is put into the furnace and melted. When in a 
plastic state it is taken in the form of a ball on the end of a puddle 
bar and squeezed or pounded and heated again. This process is 



jssssissr 




iA/A 



>^ UNDER PRESSURE. 

\ \\'\VM I V'A-s-. 



Fig. 76 



continued until most of the impurities are burned or squeezed 
out. It is then rolled into bars or billets. These billets are 
further rolled into rods of various shapes and sizes called merchant 
bars. This rolling process gives the iron a fibrous structure due 
to a certain amount of impurities which remain after the puddling. 
Wrought iron contains a very small amount of carbon. 

Properties of Wrought Iron. — Wrought iron is malleable and 
is the best material to withstand shocks. It stretches and so 
gives warning before breaking. It cannot be cast, but must be 
rolled or forged into the forms required. For this reason it is 
not adapted for complicated shapes. It can be welded, punched, 
bent, etc. Owing to its method of manufacture, it is expensive 



34 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

and is supplanted to a considerable extent by mild steel, which 
has a similar composition. Wrought iron is almost equally strong 
in tension and compression. It is stronger in the direction of the 
fibers than across them. 

Steel. — Steel is made by burning carbon and impurities out 
of pig iron and then adding the desired amount of carbon. An- 
other method is to add carbon to wrought iron. There are two 
processes of making steel from pig iron: the Bessemer process 
and the open-hearth process. 

Bessemer Process. — In the Bessemer process from five to 
twenty tons of melted pig iron is put into a converter (Fig. 76). 
Air under a pressure of about twenty pounds per square inch is 
caused to pass in streams up through the metal, and the carbon 
and impurities are burned out. This requires about ten minutes, 
and leaves practically pure iron, to which the proper carbon 
content is added by putting in liquid spiegeleisen (white iron) or 
ferromanganese. This makes it into steel, which is poured into 
ingots. These ingots are rolled into blooms and other desired 
shapes. 

Open-hearth Process. — By this process large amounts of 
steel are made at one time, generally about fifty tons. Steel, 
scrap, and pig iron are melted on the hearth of a Siemens regen- 
erative furnace. The metal is kept in agitation by chemical reac- 
tions, caused by adding iron scale or scrap iron which furnish the 
necessary carbon. 

Properties of Steel. — Steel is composed of iron and carbon in 
chemical combination. It has a uniform granular structure and 
may be formed to shape by forging, rolling, or casting. Steel 
varies greatly in its qualities, depending upon the carbon content. 
It is sometimes designated as 

Soft Steel about 0.19 % carbon 

Medium Steel " 0.30 % 

Hard Steel " 0.75 % up to 1.8% carbon 

Steel having less than 0.25 % is frequently called mild steel. 

Malleable Iron. — Small parts of cast iron can be made less 
brittle by being surrounded by iron scale or some form of an 
oxide of iron and kept at a bright red heat for over sixty hours. 
In this way some of the carbon is removed and the material is 
made to resemble wrought iron. It is used for small pieces which 



MATERIALS AND STRESSES 35 

cannot be easily forged. Hardware castings, pipe fittings, etc., 
are often made of malleable iron. 

Suggestions for Selection of Material. — The best method of 
learning the proper materials to be used is by observation. The 
material best adapted cannot always be used, because of cost, 
method of shaping, etc. Ask why, when a special material is 
used. The '^ factor of cost" is always present — the ''factor 
of safety" should always be considered first. Observe broken 
parts of machines as a valuable means of obtaining sound in- 
formation. The use of special metals is often one of trial and 
observation. Some things which influence the selection of ma- 
terial are given below : 

Method of Shaping 

Casting Cost of Pattern 

Forging — Drop Forging " " Die 

Pressing — Stamping " " " 

Extrusion — Drawing " " " 

Rolling " " '' 

Number Required 

Method of Finishing 

Strength Required 

Kind of Loads 

Moving or Stationary Parts 

Lightness or Weight 

Wear 

Where liquids or gases are used the chemical action must be 
considered. 

Loads and Stresses. — The materials used in machines are 
subject to various loadings which must be resisted by these ma- 
terials. The internal resistance must be equal to the external 
or applied load, or the part will fail. There are many ways of 
applying the load, each bringing into play a different form of 
resistance by the material. This resistance is called stress. 
Stress is a measure of the strength of the material to resist an 
external load. There are three kinds of simple stresses : tension, 
compression, and shear. 

Axial Stresses. — A bar is a portion of material having a 
uniform section, such as a cylinder or prism. When a load is 
applied to a bar so as to be uniformly distributed it is called an 



36 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



axial load. Such a load produces a direct stress in the bar. The 
section made by passing a plane at right angles to the axis of the 
bar is called a cross section. The area of this section is the cross- 
sectional area and is usually spoken of as the area. It is generally 
measured in square inches. 

When a load is apphed to a bar so that it tends to lengthen 
the bar it produces a tensile stress (Fig. 77). When the applied 
load tends to shorten or compress the bar it produces a com- 



I 
I 



w^ 



k^:i 






)-- 



^ 



p 

f 

r/g. 77 



■t 




r/g. 7$ 



F'-g 79 



pressive stress (Fig. 78). When the applied load acts at right 
angles to the bar and tends to push one cross-sectional plane by 
another it produces a shearing stress (Fig. 79). 

Unit Stresses. — In order that the strength of various materials 
may be compared, the strength of a bar one inch square is used 
as a unit. The strength of such a bar is called the unit stress, 
or stress per square inch of cross-sectional area. The stress is 
usually given in pounds per square inch. To find the unit stress, 
divide the applied load by the cross sectional area, or: 

Let A = area of cross section in square inches. 
P = total load in pounds. 
/ = stress in pounds per square inch. 

Then the unit stress is 

P (load) 



/ = 



A (area) 



MATERIALS AND STRESSES 37 

Thus, if a rod has an area of 3V2 square inches and is subject to a 
load of 35,000 pounds, it has a unit stress of 

f = — = —^ = 10,000 lb. per square inch. 

•^ A 3.5 

Elastic Limit. — From the formula given above it follows that 
if the load is doubled, the unit stress will also be doubled. This 
means that the unit stress is proportional to the load. By ex- 
periment it has been found that this law does not hold for all 
loads, but only up to a certain load (depending upon the material) . 
This load or limit is called the elastic limit and is expressed in 
pounds per square inch. For stresses less than the elastic Umit 
the increase or decrease in length of the bar is directly propor- 
tional to the stress. The increase or decrease in length is called 
the strain, and the total strain divided by the length is called 
the unit strain. 

Let I = length in inches 

e = change in length in inches 
s = unit strain 



Then 



e 

s = - 

I 



Modulus of Elasticity. — Below the elastic limit both the 
unit stress and the unit strain are proportional to the load, so 
that they bear a constant relation to each other. This relation 
is expressed as the quotient obtained by dividing the unit stress 
by the unit strain, which will give a constant called the modulus 
of elasticity and represented by E. 

Then ^ Stress / 
E = — = — 

Strain s 

p 
Ultimate Strength. — I he formula /= — gives the unit stress 

A 

of a material for a given load. If the load is sufficiently large 
the piece will break or rupture. The value of / when rupture 
takes place is called the ultimate strength of the material. 

Factor of Safety. — The ultimate strengths of materials as 
well as the elastic limits are not constants, although most of them 
are pretty well known from large numbers of tests. However, 



38 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



it is not desirable to stress a material too near its elastic limit, 
as there may be imperfections or lack of uniformity. The manner 
in which the load is applied also affects the stress which it is safe 
to impose upon a given material. For this reason various ''factors 
of safety" are used. A factor of safety is a number obtained by 
dividing the ultimate strength of a material by the unit stress 
actually imposed upon it. The actual stress is referred to as 
the safe working stress. Often the safe working stress is ob- 
tained by dividing the ultimate strength by a suitable factor of 
safety, depending upon the nature of the loading. 

Average Values. — The values given in the following tables 
are averages and will serve for purposes of computation in the 
absence of more definite figures. 

Elastic Limits 



Material 



Cast Iron. . . . 
Wrought Iron 
Steel 



Pounds per Square Inch 



Tension 



6000 
25,000 
35,000 



Compression 



20,000 
25,000 
35,000 



Moduli of Elasticity 



Material 


Pounds per Square Inch 


Cast Iron 


15,000,000 
27,000,000 


Wrought Iron 


Steel 


30,000,000 





Ultimate Strengths 



Material 


Pounds per Square Inch 


Tension 


Compression 


Shear 


Cast Iron 


20,000 

50,000 

60,000 to 100,000 


00,000 

50,000 

60,000 to 150,000 


18,000 


Wrought Iron 

Steel 


40,000 
50,000 to 80,000 





MATERIALS AND STRESSES 



39 



Factors of Safety 





Dead Load 


Live Load 


Material 


One Kind of 

Stress 


Alternate 
Tension and 
Compression 


Varying 
Loads. 
Shocks 


Cast Iron 


4 
3 


6 
5 


10 

8 


15 


Wrought Iron 

and Steel. . . 


12 



CHAPTER VI 



SCREW THREADS 

Uses of Screw Threads. — A screw is a cj- lindrical bar having 
a helical projection. The form of this helical projection varies, 
according to the uses to which the screw is put. Screws are 
used for the following purposes: To fasten parts of machines 
together; to transmit motion; to convert rotation into transla- 
tion, or vice versa; for the adjustment of parts in their relation 
to one another. 

The Helix. — A helix is a curve generated by a point moving 
equal distances lengthwise of a cylinder while it is moving equal 




F'/g. eo 

distances around the cylinder. If a right triangle is wound 
around a cylinder the hypotenuse will form a helix. The points 
1, 2, 3, 4, etc., of Fig. 80 will come at the same numbers on the 
curve when the triangle is wound around the cylinder. The 
pitch of a helix is the distance which the point moves parallel to 
the axis while it goes once around the cylinder. 

To draw the Projections of a Helix. — In Fig. 80 let T> be the 
diameter and let the pitch be the distance indicated. Divide 
the circle shown in the top view into any convenient number of 
equal parts, and draw vertical lines through each point. Divide 
the pitch into the same number of equal parts and draw horizontal 

40 



SCREW THREADS 



41 



lines. For each space around the cyHnder the point will move 

one of the spaces along the pitch, thus locating the curve as shown. 

Parts of a Screw. — A screw is known by its outside diameter, 




indicated in Fig. 81 by d. The diameter di is called the root 
diameter. Point b is the top of the thread and point a the bot- 
tom, or root. The area corresponding to di is called the root 
area. One half the difference between the outside diameter and 
the root diameter is called the depth of the thread. 

Right- and Left-hand Screws. — Screws may be either right - 
or left-hand. A right-hand screw thread (Fig. 93) requires the 




screw to be turned in a clockwise direction to enter the nut. 
A left-hand screw thread (Fig. 99) must be turned counter-clock- 
wise when entering. The pitch of a screw thread is the distance 
which the screw will advance for one complete turn for a single 
threaded screw. 

Forms of Screw Threads. — The forms of screw threads are 
shown in the accompanying figures. Fig. 82 shows the Sellers, 
Franklin Institute, or U. S. Standard thread, as used quite gen- 
erally in the United States. The proportions are indicated on 
the figures. The tops and bottoms of the V's are flattened so 
that the depth of the thread is decreased 0.25 the depth of the 



42 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



V. The flats make the thread less hable to injury on the sharp 
Vs and less liable to weakening at the bottom of the grooves 
than the sharper V thread shown in Fig. 83. This form of thread 




r/g. 86 



F/g. 69 



is also in quite general use. It is conveniently formed on a lathe, 
and does not require a special tool, or regrinding of the tool, as 
is the case for the U. S. Standard. The angle for both the above 
forms is 60 degrees. 

The Whitw^orth thread, or standard of Great Britain, is illus- 
trated in Fig. 84. In this form the angle is 55 degrees. The threads 
are rounded off at the top and bottom, making a strong shape. 




Fig. 90 




Fig. 91 



The forms described above are the ones most commonly used 
for fastening parts together. 

Fig. 86 shows the square thread, a form well adapted for use 
in transmitting motion. 

The Acme thread, a modification of the square thread, is shown 
in Fig. 87. The angle may be either 29 or 30 degrees. This 
form is used for transmitting motion. The relieving of the 
thread allows the use of a split nut. A common example is the 



SCREW THREADS 



43 



lead screw of a lathe. Fig. 88 shows the buttress or breechlock 
thread so called from its use in guns to take the recoil. It is 
designed to take pressure in one direction only. This form has 
the strength in shear of the V form, but avoids the tendency to 




Fig. 92 

split the nut. Fig. 85 shows the knuckle or rounded screw 
thread. This form can be cast in a mold.' It is used only for 
rough work. Fig. 89 shows the common wood screw. An 
attempt is made to consider the differences in strength of the 




Fig. 93 



Fig. 9a 



Fig. 95 



Fig. 9 6 



wood and steel. For adjustment, Figs. 82, 83, 84, 86, and 87 
are used. Thrust screws for pillow blocks, crossheads, etc., are 
familiar examples of adjusting screws. 

Multiple Threads. — Screws may have either single, double, 
or other multiple threads. A single-threaded screw consists of 
a single helical projection (Fig. 90). The pitch is the distance 
from one thread point to the next thread point. The lead is the 



44 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



distance which the screw will advance for one turn. When a 
large pitch is required on a small diameter, the arrangement of 
Fig. 91 would weaken the screw by reducing the root diameter 
(Fig. 91) at point A. To avoid this, two parallel hehcal projec- 
tions may be used, as shown at B (Fig. 91). This is called a double 



n-p. 9 7 



^^ZZZZ^ 




Fig. 9S 



r/g. 99 




F/g. 100 



thread. Similarly, a triple or quadruple thread may be formed. 
In this manner a large lead may be obtained without lessening 
the strength of the screw. 

Split Nut and Square Thread. — A portion of a square threaded 
screw, and a section of a nut for use with it are shown in Fig. 92. 





Fig 101 



F/g. 102 



F/g. 103 



The method of drawing the helix has already been explained. 
Note the dotted line a-5, which indicates the undercutting of 
surface ahc, and shows why a split nut cannot be removed from 
a square threaded screw. The sloping side of the Acme thread 
does away with this undercutting and allows the removal of a 

split nut. 

Conventional Representation of Screw Threads. — It is not 
often necessary to draw the helix in representing threads, as 
there are a number of conventional representations in use. Figs. 
93 to 100 are common methods. Figs. 93 to 98 are for right- 
hand threads, Figs. 99 and 100 are for left-hand threads, and 
Figs. 96 to 98 are for either right- or left-hand threads. It is not 



SCREW THREADS 



45 



generally necessary to draw the pitch to scale. The distance 
between lines may be estimated by eye and arranged to avoid 
crowding of the lines. The number of threads per inch of other 
than U. S. Standard should be given by note, as '' 12 threads per 





Top^ 



c:>t--3/f^'l-J-J 



^^±-> 



Fig. 104 

inch, right handJ^ This may be abbreviated to '^12 Thds. R. HJ' 
or "12 Thds. L. i7." Sometimes the number is given for U. S. 
Standard as indicated in Fig. 96, or the Roman numeral may be 
used, as in Fig. 95. 

Three representations for square threads are shown in Figs. 101, 

k 




F/'g. 105 



Fig. /06 



102, and 103. The square threads are generally drawn to scale, 
and if of large diameter the helix may be drawn in, as in Fig. 92. 

Threaded Holes. — Representations for threaded holes are 
shown in plan, elevation, and section, in Fig. 104. It will be 
observed that the lines representing the threads slope in the 



46 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 





r/g.l07 



F/g. 108 



Fig. 109 



opposite direction when the hole is shown in section. The reason 

for this is that the far side of the thread is seen. As shown, 

either single or double circles may be used in the plan view. 
When the last two forms are used they should always be marked 

''Tap" as indicated. 
For small diameters, 
the V's may be put 
in free hand. The 
lines representing the 
roots of the threads 

when visible are sometimes made heavier, but when dotted all 

lines should be of uniform thickness. 

Strength of Screw Threads. — There are three methods of 

failure, shearing of threads, tension at the root of threads, and 

bursting of the nut. 

Let /s = unit shearing stress in pounds per square inch. 
ji = unit tensile stress in pounds per square inch, 
p = pitch in inches 
I = length in inches 

The shearing strength of the V thread (Fig. 105) will be 

Ps = TT di Ifs 

and for square threads (Fig. 106) having the same outside diameter 

and pitch „ 77//. 

Ps = TT d2 V 2 fs 

which shows that the square thread is much weaker in shear 
than the V thread. 

The tensile strength of the V thread (Fig. 105) will be 

Pt ='/^Trd,^ft 

and for the square thread. Fig. 106, having the same outside 
diameter and pitch ^ , , , „ . 

Pt = 74 TT C?2^ ft 

The V thread will have a considerable tendency to burst the 
nut, as shown in Fig. 107. As the angle between the threads 
decreases, this bursting tendency decreases until the square form 
is reached, when it becomes zero (Fig. 109). 

The following tables give some desirable data concerning screw 
threads. Further information may be found in the handbooks 
published by Machinery and American Machinist. 



SCREW THREADS 



47 



Dimensions of U. S. Standard Threads 





Threads 


Diameter 


Root 


Root 


Diameter 


per Inch 


of Tap Drill 


Diameter 


Area 


74 


20 


V16 


.185 


.026 


Vl6 


18 


74 


.241 


.045 


Vs 


16 


V16 


.294 


.068 


Vl6 


14 


2V64 


.345 


.093 


■ V2 


13 


^732 


.400 


.126 


V16 


12 


^32 


.454 


.162 


Vs 


11 


V32 


.507 


.202 


V4 


10 


Vs 


.620 


.302 


Vs 


9 


74 


.731 


.420 


1 


8 


2732 


.838 


.551 


iVs 


7 


3732 


.940 


.693 


1V4 


7 


1732 


1.065 


.889 


IVs 


6 


17l6 


1.159 


1.054 


1V2 


6 


17l6 


1.284 


1.293 


IVs 


5V2 


1^732 


1.389 


1.515 


1V4 


5 


172 


1.491 


1.744 


iVs 


5 


IVs 


1.616 


2.049 


2 


4V2 


174 


1.711 


2.300 



Tensile Strength of U. S. Standard Screw Threads 



Diameter 


Threads 
per Inch 


Total Strength of One Bolt for Unit Stresses of 


4000 


5000 


6000 


74 

" 78 

72 

Vs 

74 

78 

iVs 

178 

174 

178 

172 

178 

174 

178 

2 


20 
16 
13 
11 
10 

9 

8 

7 

7 

6 

6 

572 

5 

5 

472 


105 

270 

500 

805 

1200 

1680 

2200 

2770 

3120 

4240 

5120 

6120 

7040 

8120 

9200 


135 

340 

625 

1010 

1500 

2100 

2750 

3460 

3900 

5300 

6400 

7650 

8800 

10150 

11500 


160 

405 

750 

1210 

1800 

2520 

3300 

4160 

4680 

6360 

7680 

9180 

10560 

12180 

13800 



CHAPTER VII 
BOLTS AND SCREWS 

The most common fastening for holding parts of machines 
together is some form of bolt or screw. There is a great variety 
of forms, many of which are shown in this chapter. 

U. S. Standard Bolts. — Figs. 110 and HI show the pro- 
portions of the U. S. Standard hexagonal bolt head and nut. 
As indicated, there are two general forms, chamf erred (Fig. 110) 
and rounded (Fig. 111). The same proportions hold for both 
types. The rounded type is used when the parts to be bolted 
together are nicely finished. The distance across flats W is 
made equal to one and one half times the diameter, plus one 
eighth inch, or 

W = V/2d+'/s" 

The thickness of the bolt head is made equal to one half the 
distance across flats, or 

T =y,d+ Vie" 

The thickness of the nut is made equal to the diameter in all 
cases. These same formulae hold good for both the hexagonal 
and square forms. Fig. 112 shows the square form. 

The radii for the various arcs are shown on the figures, and 
when not given in terms of the diameter are obtained from the 
construction, as indicated. The distance across corners is gen- 
erally found by construction, as indicated in Fig. 110, by drawing 
a line xy at 30 degrees with the base of the head. 

x-z = one half distance across flats 
x-y = one half distance across corners 

It should be noted that the radii R and Ri of Fig. Ill, are both 
drawn from the same center. The length of the radius Ri is 
found by construction when drawing the bolt head or nut. When 

48 



BOLTS AND SCREWS 



49 




^c^- 




'V 



d 



V I 






Fig. /I2 




heads or nuts are finished or machined, the distance across flats 
is often made Vie inch smaller than standard, in which case 

W =1V2^+Vl6" 



50 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



The proportions of bolt heads and nuts are collected in the 
following list, which also gives some approximate values to be 
used when drawing to small scale, or where exact size is not 
important. 







Exact 


Approximate 


Diameter of bolt 


d 
W 

T 

Cn 
d 

Cs 


d 

'Ud +V8" 
W 

'/,d+Wu"=- 

1.155TF 

d 
1.414TF 


d 

V/,d 

Vzd 

lV4d+V8 
d 

2M 


d 


Distance across flats 

Thickness of bolt head 

(Hex.) distance across corners. . 
Thickness of nut 


2d 
d 


(Square) distance across corners 





Bolts. — A through bolt is one which extends through two 
pieces, and carries a nut, as shown in Fig. 113. Care must be 
taken to allow sufficient thread to insure the two pieces being held 
firmly together. For this reason, the distance from the end of 






F/g. //3 



r/g. //4 



r/g.ns 



the thread at A to the under side of the head B must be less 
than the thickness of the two flanges. Since the bolt head and 
nut are standard only three dimensions are necessary when 
specifying a bolt. These are, diameter, length from under side 
of head to end of bolt, and length of thread measured from the 
end of the bolt. 

A tap bolt is a bolt which makes use of a part of the machine 
to take the place of a nut, as shown in Fig. 114. To be sure that 
the two pieces will be held firmly together, the distance AB must 
be less than the thickness of the flange. 



BOLTS AND SCREWS 



51 



Studs. — A stud bolt or stud is a cylindrical bar having threads 
on both ends (Fig. 115). Studs are used when there is not room 
enough for through bolts, and where there is danger of a tap 
bolt rusting in. Cylinder heads for steam or water machinery 
are familiar examples. In such cases the heads have to be taken 
off frequently, and if tap bolts were _ _ ..^ 

used, the threads might rust in, and 
break when an attempt to remove 
them was made. If successfully re- 
moved several times, the thread would 
be worn so as to become loose and 
render the keeping of a tight joint 
difficult. When a stud is put in place 
it becomes part of the casting, and 
the wear then comes on the nut and 
stud, both of which are made of 
wrought iron. The material will stand 
the wear much better than cast iron, 
on the outer end of the stud will prevent the nut from rusting 
on. 

Threaded Holes. — Holes for bolts and studs are generally 
threaded by using taps. Machinist taps come in sets of three, 



Fig. 116 
A small amount of oil 




Fig. lie 



F/g //7 




Fig. 119 



designated as taper, plug, and bottoming taps (Fig. 116). The 
operation is as follows: First a hole is made with a driU having 
a diameter about equal to the root diameter of the screw. Such 
a drill is called a tap drill. The thread is then cut by inserting 
and turning in the taps illustrated, and in the order given. The 
use of the bottoming tap is often omitted, as it is seldom neces- 
sary to have threads to the very bottom of the hole (the reader 
is referred to catalogs of machinists' tools for further informa- 



52 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



tion). Unless it is desired to have a stud jam at the bottom of 
a hole, clearance, CD, should be allowed, as shown in Fig. 117. 
The depth of the hole is tli.e distance AB, If necessary the 



*-B- 






-<4 



FJaf Finisher Head 



HZ?h 



Oyal Fi/l/sfer Head 



T /9= 1.64- A-. 009 
O C= .66A-.002 

Jl D= ./ys/a-.o/s 
a= i c 



"^^JlJ^l k B = /.6^/J -.009 



i^h 



Round Head X^g'—-^ 




E3 



3- /.asA-.oos 

C= .75 A 

D- ./73A-f:0/5' 

£= iC +.01 




C- .66A-.002 
D= .l73Ai-.0/5 

e'-. ^F 

F= . 13^ B -fC 



F/af Head 

B = 2/i-.ooa 

C -(A-.008)-r/.739 
P = ./73A i-.OJ5 



Fig. I20 



thread may be carried to the bottom of the hole and even the 
drill point may be ground off so that a flat bottom hole may be 
obtained as in Fig. 118. This will prevent the drill from pointing 
or breaking through, as indicated by the dotted lines. A better 





F/g. fe^ 



D 


/ 

^ 


s 

16 


3 

e 


7 
/6 


/ 
2 


9 

/6 


S 

e 


3 


7 



1 


H 


7 

/6 


a 


9 

/6 


S 
& 


3 


/3 
/6 


7 

e 


/ 


Is 


1? 


3 


3 

e 


7- 
/6 


/ 


9 
/6 


S 

e 


II 
16 


s 


7 

8 


/i 


Ik 



method is to put a boss on the casting opposite the hole, and 
then use a regular drill and plug tap (Fig. 119). 

Machine Screws. — Small screws are made with a variety of 
forms of heads. They are especially adapted for use with small 
parts of machines. Fig. 120 shows the various forms of heads, 
and the proportions as recommended by the American Society 
of Mechanical Engineers. The sizes of machine screws are 



BOLTS AND SCREWS 



53 



designated by numbers. Diameters range from .060 inches to 
.450 inches. 

Cap Screws. — For many purposes bolts having different 
dimensions from the U. S. Standard are desirable. Hexagonal 
and square cap screws are shown in Figs. 121 and 122. The 
distance across flats is less than the U. S. Standard, and the 
thickness is greater. Cap screws are also made with heads similar 
to those shown for machine screws. Cap screws are designated 
by their diameter in inches. The diameters are in even fractions 
of an inch, starting at ^U'. 

Cap Nuts. — Where an especially finished appearance is de- 
sired, cap nuts may 
be used to conceal 
the ends of studs. 
They are frequently 
seen on polished cyl- 
inder heads, and similar places, 
shown in Figs. 123, 124, and 125. 

Set Screws. — For holding pulleys on shafts, and otherwise 
preventing relative motion, set screws may be used. Several 
forms are illustrated. Any combination of point and head may 






Fig.iaa 



F,g 12^ 



Fig.iaS 



Several forms of cap nuts are 




N= US Sfd. No Thds. per inch. 



KIZ 



Fig. /26 



Fig. /23 



rig. /B9 



\.m 



@ 



Fig. 130 



I 



Fig. 131 



be obtained. Some proportions are shown in Figs. 126 to 131. 
A projecting set screw on a revolving pulley is a source of great 
danger, and should be avoided. The many forms of headless 
and hollow set screws on the market render the use of other 
forms unnecessary in such cases. 

The relative holding power of the different forms of ends of 
set screw are given by Professor Lanza in the A. S. M. E. "Trans- 
actions," Volume 10. Average results of tests on four kinds are 
as follows: 



54 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



A. Flat end, ^/le inch diameter, 2064 pounds 

B. End rounded, V2 inch radius, 2912 pounds 

C. End rounded, V4 inch radius, 2573 pounds 

D. Cup shaped end, 2470 pounds 

The set screws were all ^/g inches in diameter, and were tightened 
with a pull of 75 pounds on a 12 inch wrench. 

Locking Devices. — The vibration of machinery often causes 
nuts to become loose if they are not provided with some form of 
locking device. The commonest method is to use two nuts. 
They may be full size, or one of the arrangements shown in Fig. 



>^ 



HI 



spring Coffer 



>^ 



\5 



-^ 





Cc7sf/e A/ufs 



Z^^fK 





"SI 



T 



r/g. /S2 



132. The castle nut illustrated forms a good method. Lock 
washers consisting of a piece of sheet metal are effective. One 
corner is turned down, and another corner is turned up, as 
illustrated. 

The following table gives the dimensions for U. S. Standard 
bolt heads and nuts. 



BOLTS AND SCREWS 



55 



Dimensions of U. S. Standard Bolt Heads and Nuts 




d 


w 


c 


d 


T 


Cs 


Diameter 
of Bolt 


Flats or 

Short 
Diameter 


Corners 
or Long 
Diameter 


Thickness 
of Nut 


Thickness 

of 
Bolt Head 


Corners 
or Long 
Diameter 


V4 


V2 


^764 


74 


74 


2732 


Vie 


"/32 


"/16 


7l6 


"/64 


==732 


Vs 


V16 


"/64 


78 


V32 


3732 


Vl6 


2V32 


2V32 


7 16 


"/64 


1764 


V2 


Vs 


1764 


72 


7l6 


174 


V16 


^V32 


178 


7l6 


^64 


178 


Vs 


IV16 


1^64 


78 


^32 


172 


V4 


IV4 


1^764 


74 


78 


174 


Vs 


IV16 


l«/64 


78 


2732 


2732 


1 


IVs 


178 


1 


^7 16 


278 


IVs 


l^Vie 


2732 


iVs 


2732 


27l6 


1V4 


2 


27 16 


174 


1 


2^764 


IVs 


2Vl6 


2^732 


178 


1732 


3732 


1V2 


2V8 


23/4 


172 


17l6 


3^764 


IVs 


2Vl6 


217 16 


178 


1732 


378 


1V4 


2V4 


37 16 


174 


178 


3"/64 


IVs 


2^7 16 


31732 


178 


1^32 


47 16 


2 


SVs 


378 


2 


17l6 


4^764 



56 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Depth of Tapped Holes and Distance for Screw to Enter 




Diameter 
of Screw 



74 



16 



Vs 

Vl6 

V2 

Vl6 

Vs 

V4 

Vs 

1 

174 

IVs 

172 

IVs 

1V4 

17s 

2 



D 

Diameter 

of Tap 

Drill 



^764 
^732 
Vl6 

Vs 

2764 
^764 
^732 
^764 
74 
^764 
«V64 
P/64 
P764 
1^764 
P732 
172 
178 
P732 



Depth 
of Hole 



7l6 

7l6 

^7l6 

74 

I7l6 

1 

174 
172 
178 
174 

2 

274 
272 
278 
274 

3 

37s 



Allowance 

for 
Drill Point 



7l6 

764 

732 

764 

78 

764 



/l6 
32 



7 

74 

V 



32 
"/16 
^732 

7s 

^732 
7l6 
^32 
72 



Distance 
for Screw 
to Enter 



78 
7l6 
7 16 

Vs 

Vl6 
^7 16 

78 

1 

174 

17s 

172 
174 
178 

27s 

274 
278 
278 
274 



CHAPTER VIII 



RIVETING 



Riveting. — Since machines and structures cannot be made in 
one piece some means of fastening the parts together must be 
used. For many purposes where a permanent fastening is re- 
quired, rivets are used. A rivet is a bar of metal having a head 
made on one end and a length sufficient to allow forming a head 
on the other end after being put into place. The holes for rivets 
may be either punched or drilled. As punching injures the 
metal, drilled holes are better for boiler or other pressure work. 




^ig. /33 




Fig. /^^ 



Fig- /3S 



Holes are made Vie inch larger diameter than the rivets used in 
them. Thus a one-inch rivet is ^Vie inch diameter before driving. 

The computations for pitch and efficiency of joints, matters 
relating to design, are beyond the scope of this work, but the 
following articles will suffice for drawing purposes. 

Rivet Heads. — The forms of rivet heads are shown in Figs. 
133, 134, and 135. The countersunk head and the button head 
are illustrated in Fig. 133. These forms are used for structural 
work. For pressure work the cone head or pan head of Fig. 134 
may be used, or the common form of Fig. 135. 

Lap Joints. — When two plates lap over each other and are 
held by a row of rivets as in Fig. 136 it is called a single riveted 
lap joint. A double riveted lap joint is shown in Fig. 137. The 
distance between the centers of two rivets in the same row is 

57 



58 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



called the pitch. The distance from the center hne of the rivets 
to the edge of the plate is called the lap. The lap is commonly 
made equal to one and one half times the diameter of the rivet. 





Fig. /36 



r/g. /3 7 



The distance from the center of a rivet in one line to the center 
of a rivet in the next line is called the diagonal pitch and may be 
found from the formula: 

p' =y,p + ^ 

3 

Either chain riveting (Fig. 138) or staggered riveting (Fig. 139) 
may be used when there are several rows of rivets. 





f/'g. /3d 



f/g. /3 9 



Butt Joints. — Three forms of butt joints are shown in Figs. 
140, 141, and 142. In Fig. 140 a single butt-strap having a thick- 
ness of about one and one fourth times the thickness of the plates 



RIVETING 



59 



may be used. Figs. 141 and 142 show single and double riveted 
butt joints with two butt-straps. In such cases the butt-straps 
may be Vie inch thinner than the plates. 

When three plates come together they must be arranged so 






^)=r3:^=P; 





4y 



f/g. /^/ 




r/g. 14-2 




Action A- A 







r/g. /^3 



1 



Sect ton 3 -3 



as to maintain a tight joint. One method used is shown in 
Fig. 143. In order to obtain a fit one of the plates must be 
thinned out. 

Calking. — For many purposes rivets must make a leak tight 
joint as well as hold the plates together. To assist in this a 



60 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



blunt chisel is used to force or pound the edge of the plate down. 
This is called calking and makes a water or steam tight joint 




h 



'W-'M 



r 




1 






^^^^^^^^" %p |)^^'j^ \\\\^ 



^'%^^''''' 



CP 



r/g. /^4 



fig. /^5 



r/g. /'^6 



1 

r/g. /47 



between the plates. The bevel of about 75° shown is to make 
the calking easier. 

Miscellaneous Connections. — Some miscellaneous connections 
are shown in Figs. 144 to 147. Angles may be used as in Figs. 




rK 



7^ 



M 



N^ 



r/g. /^& 



r/g. J 4-9 



144 and 147 or one of the plates may be bent as in Figs. 145 and 
146. In this case the radius of curvature (r) may be about two 
and one half times the thickness of the plate. Also note that a 
short straight part {x) should be provided to allow easy calking 

rciiT 

AngleiX] Channel[Z] Beamij ) Z-Bar{7L) Tee (T) 

rig. 150 

(Fig. 145) . When drawing to a small scale thin sections are some- 
times blacked in as shown in Figs. 148 and 149, which also il- 
lustrate methods of closing the ends of cylindrical tanks. With 
rounded ends the radius of curvature may be taken equal to the 
diameter of the tank. 



RIVETING 



61 



Rolled Steel Shapes. — For many constructions, rolled steel 
shapes are used. The dimensions and weights as well as other 
properties can best be obtained from the handbooks issued by 



C0/^i^£Nr/ONAL . 


S/SN5 FOR RiyFT/MC 








Shop 


Fie/d 


CountersunM and Fiafiened 


7*vo Ful/ Heads 


o 


• 




Inside 


Ouis/de 


BofhSides 


^ High 





Q 


Q 


CcH/nfersunk dc Chipped 
/ns/de or Opposite side 


<g) 


(i) 


^ High 





O 


i^ 


Countersunk 3 Chipped 
Ou/side or This Side 


a 


® 


Couf-ersunk 3 Chipped 
Bofh Sides 


!8^ 


81 


fnigh 


® 


O 


^ 



r/g. 15/ 

the steel companies. The names of a few of the common sections 
are given in connection with Fig. 150. 

The pitch of rivets for structural purposes may be taken at 
from three to six inches. The distance from the center of the 
rivet to the edge of the plate should generally be about two times 
the rivet diameter. The pitch for various sizes of rivets may be 
taken from the table given below. 



MINIMUM RIV£T SP/^CfNG 



P/omefer of PiVef 


1 
^ 


3 

e 


i 


s 
e 


3 


7 

a 


> 1 


P/fch 


3 


Ik 


/i 


// 


£i 


2§ 3 



The Osborn system of conventional representation for rivets 
is shown in Fig. 151. 



CHAPTER IX 
WORKING DRAWINGS 

Classes of Drawings. — The origin of a drawing is of interest, 
and a knowledge of how drawings are produced is essential. 
Roughly drawings may be divided into two classes; detail draw- 
ings and assembly drawings. These names are sufficiently de- 
scriptive in a general way. Drawings are sometimes made from 
a machine or part by measuring and sketching. The usual 
source of a detail drawing is the designer's board. Here the 
whole machine is laid out to scale in a more or less complete 
manner, the relation of one part to another is shown, and such 
fixed dimensions as are necessary are determined. The shapes 
of the various parts as required for strength and motion are 
worked out and drawn. From such drawings the detail drafts- 
man works and finishes the drawings of the separate parts. 

A detail drawing shows each piece separately and completely 
defines it (Fig. 152). The number of views is determined by 
what is necessary to show the shape and size of the object. A 
pin, shaft, or bolt can generally be shown in one view, while a 
casting may require two, three, or more views together with 
sectional and auxiliary views. The main views should always 
be arranged in strict conformity to the rules of projection. The 
third quadrant is used exclusively for this purpose. Auxiliary 
views and sections may be placed in other positions but explana- 
tory notes should always be used to define them as explained in 
Chapter X. 

The size of paper and the scales to use have been treated in 
other chapters. Use a scale that will show the object clearly 
and that will not require crowding of the dimensions. In general 
it is better not to use more than one scale on the same sheet. 
To this end large and small pieces would not be put on the same 
sheet. There are many concerns where each part is drawn on 
a sheet by itself. The character of the work will determine the 
practice in this respect. 

62 



WORKING DRAWINGS 



63 



It is generally well to draw large castings separately and to 
group small parts together as: 

Small Castings, 

Bronze and Composition Castings, 

Forgings, 

Bolts and Screws. 




F/g. 152 

Special Detail Drawings. — Special detail drawings are some- 
times made for the different classes of workmen. These might 
be classed as follows: 

Pattern Drawings, 

Forging Drawings, 

Machinist's Drawings, 

Stock Drawings. 

There are many advantages to this system where a large num- 
ber of parts are made as each workman is given only such in- 
formation as concerns him. As pattern dimensions are used 
only when the pattern is made or for alterations they complicate 
the drawing and can better be left off the machinist's drawing. 
One method is to put the pattern dimensions and information on 
the tracing in pencil, make several blueprints, and erase the pencil 



64 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 











— 













- 


_ 




1 


--- 


r- 

1 
1 

-+ - 
1 
1 
v_. 


(b 






- - 


-> 

\ 


- 








- 








! - 








— 








r— 

1 
1 
1 


C 






















1 
1 
1 
1 

v._. 








I 




1 




















— 






^- 


1— [- 




> 








> 






-~ 
























i 




r 

1 
1 
_u_ 
1 
1 
1 




















1 






















1 






~_ 


L-|— 


— 







_J 


' 


- 








- 




-— 


— 


— 










1 



























J 




1 

























information from the tracing. Gasolene applied with a soft 
cloth is excellent for this purpose. For forgings two separate 
drawings will be necessary, one for the blacksmith and one for 
the machinist. The saving in time will make up for the expense 
of the extra drawing in most cases. 



WORKING DRAWINGS 65 

How to make a Drawing. — A detail drawing is started by 
first locating the main center lines as shown in Fig. 153 for the 
necessary views. Next "block in" the fixed dimensions in all 
views and from them work out the shape of the object. The 
small circles, fillets, etc. should be drawn last. Figs. 153 to 158 
show the drawing for a slide valve in the various stages of making. 

After completing the drawing in pencil it is ready to be inked 
on paper or traced. 

Tracing. — Most drawings are now inked on tracing cloth. 
This is a translucent linen cloth. There are many grades, some 
nearly transparent. One side of the cloth is generally shiny or 
glazed and the other dull. Either side may be used but the dull 
side is to be preferred. The cloth is tacked down over the pencil 
drawing and the lines inked in as though they were on the cloth. 
The surface of the cloth should be rubbed over with powdered 
chalk and then the chalk thoroughly removed. A clean blotter 
will serve the same purpose. The fine thread running at the 
e^ges of the cloth should be torn off before using to prevent 
wrinkling. As the cloth is absorbent it should be protected from 
moisture. 

Order for inking Lines. — The weight of line to be used has 
been discussed in the first chapter. First ink the center lines 
using a fine dot and dash line. The order of inking then is: 

1. Sinall circular arcs and circles. 

2. Large circular arcs and circles. 

3. Irregular curved lines. 

4. Straight horizontal lines. 

5. Straight vertical lines. 

6. Dotted circular arcs. 

7. Dotted lines. 

8. Witness and dimension lines. 

9. Dimensions, notes, title. 
10. Section lining. 

When a large or complicated drawing is to be inked it is ad- 
visable to ink one view at a time or to start only so much as can 
be completed on the same day. If a view is left uncompleted it 
will generally be found very difficult to join the various lines, 
because the cloth is very sensitive to atmospheric changes which 
cause it to stretch. 



66 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Assembly Drawings. — An assembly drawing shows the parts 
of a machine in their proper relation to one another. There are 
many kinds of assembly drawings, some of which will be described. 

An Outline or Setting drawing is frequently made to show the 
appearance of the machine, give center distances, and overall 
dimensions. Such drawings are used to illustrate the machine 
to prospective customers, to lay out the foundation, and for locat- 





OUTLINE DRAWING 

be:nch shears 



ing the machine in its building. Fig. 159 shows one form of such 
a drawing. 

An Assembly Working Drawing is often made when only a few 
of the machines are to be constructed. Such a drawing might 
contain a number of part views or sections. It would be com- 
pletely dimensioned so that no separate or detail drawings would 
be required. Fig. 175 shows such a drawing. 

Part Assembly Drawings are sometimes made giving a few 
pieces in their proper relation to each other and either partly 
or completely dimensioned. When completely dimensioned no 
further detail drawings are made. 

Assembly drawings made to show the sizes, location, and method 
of fastening pipes and wires are called piping or wiring diagrams 
or drawings, depending upon how completely they are figured. 

Erection Drawings are an important class of assembly drawings. 
They show the proper order of putting the parts together, dimen- 



WORKING DRAWINGS 



67 




f^ig. /60 

sions, such as center distances, which must be exact, give the 
location of oil holes, valves, switches, etc., and methods of making 
adjustments. 



68 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Diagram Drawings are used by many concerns. These com- 
prise a sectional or external view of the whole of the machine 
upon which the parts can be numbered or named. Such a draw- 
ing frequently contains a list of the parts, drawing numbers, 
pattern numbers, materials, weight, and other information. 

Outline drawings are often used for catalogs, advertising, and 
similar purposes. Some of the points to be considered are given 






(^-- 



F/g./e/ 



Fig. /62 



F/g. 163 



in the following list. The one upon which emphasis must be put 
will depend upon the use to which the drawing is to be put. 

1. Get the important points. 

2. Sense of proportion. 

3. Suggestion. 

4. Simplicity (few lines). 

5. Record peculiarities in shape or design. 

6. Use notes if necessary. 

7. Number of machine. 

8. Name of manufacturer. 

9. Trade names. 

10. Use of shading. 

11. Not necessarily to scale. 

&how Drawings are sometimes made. These are often in the 
nature of a picture in which the center lines and dimensions are 
left off (Fig. 160). Line shading as explained in a later chapter is 
often used. A good effect may sometimes be obtained by mass 
shading with a soft pencil, using the dull side of the tracing cloth. 
For more particular work on paper, India ink tinting applied with 
a brush can be used. 



WORKING DRAWINGS 



69 



Exceptions to True Projection. — There are many cases where 
true projection is departed from in the interests of simplicity and 
clearness. Figs. 161, 162, and 163 show a few cases. The slot 
in the screw is drawn at 45° in the top view but is not projected 




-LU. 



i ! ! 



Fig. 164 



F/g. 165 



Fig. 166 



to the elevation. The same practice is followed for holes and 
pins. The location of bolt holes is another illustration. The 
front view of Fig. 164 shows the true projection of the bolt holes. 
The front view of Fig. 165 shows the preferable method which 




Fig 167 




F/g. /ee 



locates the centers of the bolt holes at a distance apart equal to 
the diameter of the circle of drilling. In such cases the other 
holes need not be projected as they add nothing to the information 
conveyed by the drawing. When holes are drilled as in Fig. 165 
they are said to be ''Two Up" or off centers, and when located 
as in Fig. 166 they are said to be ''One Up" or on centers. Pipe 
flanges on elbows and fittings are usually drilled "Two Up" and 



70 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

with four, eight, or some multiple of four holes, so that the flanges 
can be turned at right angles. 

Other exceptions to true projection are discussed in the chapter 
on sections. 

Blueprints. — The object of making tracings is to provide a 
convenient means for obtaining several copies of the original 
drawing. The most common method is by the blueprinting 
process. Blueprint paper is paper which has been coated with 
iron salts which are sensitive to light. The method of making 
blueprints is as follow^s: 

Place the tracing with the right side or inked side next to the 
glass of a printing frame as shown in Fig. 167. Next place a 
piece of blueprint paper on the tracing with the coated side down. 
Follow this with the felt pad and close the frame. Expose to 
the direct sunlight as indicated in Fig. 168. The length of the 
exposure varies from 30 seconds in strong sunlight with rapid 
printing paper to three or four minutes under the same conditions 
with slow printing paper. The time can best be found by trial, 
as the age of the paper and the brightness of the light all exert 
an influence. After exposing, the paper should be removed and 
thoroughly washed. The excess water may be blotted off and 
the print hung up to dry. New paper has a yellow color on the 
coated side. After exposure this changes to a gray-bronze except 
where the lines of the tracing prevent the light from reaching it. 

Electric light is very generally used in the larger mechanical 
factories for making blueprints. Machines for this purpose as 
well as many other methods of duplication are described in draw- 
ing supply catalogs to which the reader is referred. 



CHAPTER X 
SECTIONS 

Sectional Views. — Probably the most useful form of con- 
ventional representation is the sectional view obtained by an 








rig. 169 

imaginary cutting plane described in Chapter IV. Free use 
of sections often saves much time as well as possibility of mistakes 
in reading drawmgs for constructions which have compUcated 




Fig. Jyo 




Fig. / yi 



m 



F,g.l72 



cores. The choice of views should be made with care and for a 
definite purpose, never for appearances. There are many special 
sections, some of which are described in this chapter. An article 

71 



72 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



by the author, '^ Sections of Ribs and Symmetrical Parts," in 
''Machinery," June, 1915, gives further apphcations. 

Broken and Revolved Sections. — When a long piece of uni- 
form cross section is to be represented, a larger scale can be used 



-74 



^I 



I 




F/g. 173 

by '^ breaking" the piece. The manner of breaking generally 
indicates the form of cross section and material as in Fig. 169. 
The break is made free hand but should be carefully done. The 
two sides should appear to match, that is, if the sectioning comes 
on the upper side of one half it should come on the lower side of 



Sechcn A A in 
d/'rcchon of orrav 




Fig. 17^ 



the other. A similar method of "set in" sections is often used 
for such conditions as are present with wrench handles, pulley 
arms, brackets, hand wheels, and rods. Figs. 170 to 173 show 
some examples. 

Location of Sectional Views. — When conditions permit, sec- 
tional views should be placed according to the laws of projection 



SECTIONS 



73 





as explained in Chapter IV, and are drawn in the same manner 
as the other views by assuming a part of the machine or parts to 
have been removed. When many sections are required or other 



74 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



reasons make it necessary to place the sectional views in another 
location, arrows and notes should be used to explain them 

as shown in Fig. 174. 
Extra sectional views 
are often very useful 
in explaining parts of a 
machine or details of a 
part. 

Since the cutting 
plane is imaginary it 
need not be continu- 
ous; thus several sec- 
tions may be used and 
the views represented 
as though occurring on 
a single plane. This is 
illustrated in Fig. 175, 
where the cutting 
plane is changed as 
shown in the top view. 
Thus the front sec- 
tion is taken on the 
plane A, B, C, D, E^ 
F, and the side section 
on a plane through the 
center. 

Objects not Sectioned. — When a full view will serve the same 
purpose just as well a sectional view should not be used. This 
is true in the case of shafts, bolts, nuts, screws, rivets, keys, pulley 






F/g. /77 

arms, etc., which are very seldom drawn in section except when 
the cutting plane is at right angles to the long dimension. This 
treatment of a section is shown in Fig. 176. 



SECTIONS 



75 



Dotted Lines on Sectional Views. — Very often a sectional 
view contains only the outline of the sectioned surfaces and the 
full lines which appear. How much of the part behind the plane 




Fig. 1 79 Fig. 160 Fig. i8l 



of the section should be represented must be determined for each 
particular case. When an object is represented by a view made 
up of one half in section and one half exterior most or all of the 





F/'g. 162 

dotted lines may be omitted from both halves, as was done in 
Fig. 175. 

Sections of Ribs and Symmetrical Parts. — Ribs, arms, and 
gear teeth are not ordinarily sectioned even though they appear 



76 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

on the plane of the section. Figs. 177 and 178 illustrate such 
cases. In Fig. 177 the plane M N passes through the ribs, but is 
not sectioned in the other view as it would give a false impression 
of solidity. In Fig. 178 the true projection without sectioning 
the rib is shown at A, while the usual conventional section is 
shown at B. 

The representation of a cylinder head in Figs. 179, 180, and 181, 
shows a similar case. A true section on the plane AB is given 
in Fig. 179. In Fig. 180 the section is taken on CD and revolved 
into the position of AB. The bolt holes and lugs are then located 
at their true distances from the center. By this means one view 
could be made to represent the cylinder head by adding a note 
to give the number of lugs. An alternate method is shown in 
Fig. 181, where the section FE is revolved. The idea in all cases 
is to avoid a view which might in any way be confusing and to 
convey the true shape clearly. 

When a rib occurs on the plane of a section and it is necessary 
to distinguish it, coarse sectioning may be employed as in the 
cone pulley of Fig. 182 where the ribs are sectioned but alternate 
lines are omitted. A note giving the number and thickness of 
the ribs would allow the end view to be dispensed with. Observe 
that the half end view is bounded by the center line and not by 
a full line, as the pulley has not been actually cut in half. 



CHAPTER XI 



DIMENSIONING 

Purpose of Dimensions. — The purpose of dimensions is to 
give the necessary figures for constructing machine parts and 
putting them together. A drawing gives the shape of an object, 





Fig. /as 

the dimensions tell the size. These are two operations and both 
should be kept in mind. 

Dimension Lines. — Dimension lines show where the figures 
apply to the drawing. They are terminated by arrow heads. 
The arrow heads should be about twice as long as they are wide. 




Fig. 18^ 



Fig. ids 



Fig. 183 shows the construction of an enlarged arrow head, and 
its proportions. Fine full red ink lines are sometimes used for 
dimension, center, and witness lines. The arrow heads and 
figures are always black. The figures and notes should always 
be placed so as to read from the lower or right hand side of the 

77 



78 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



drawing. Never use slant fraction lines. In most cases it is 
considered bad practice to place the figures upright as shown in 
Fig. 184 where the figures may be easily read with the wrong 
dimension lines. Fig. 185 shows a better arrangement. The 
witness and dimension lines should be as fine as possible so as 
not to conflict with the Hnes of the drawing. In the interest of 
clearness there should be as few lines as possible crossing each 



i'Top 



/6Thd.U.SS 



' \^^^ 




^ 



..-£S^^-1^..- 




n 



I Diom- 



r^ — + — 1^3:^^^ 



]L 



KlVO 



0)|^ 












^3 



3 

a 



^ 



\)o 



5- Or/// 



6 



\.J 



li 



^4 



u 



Fig. 186 



other. The center lines and object hnes have only one purpose 
and should never be used as dimension lines. Generally the 
dimension lines can be kept outside of the views, thus keeping the 
size and shape of the object separate. In such cases place the 
larger dimensions outside the smaller ones as in Figs. 186 and 
188. Fig. 187 shows a poorly dimensioned drawing of a pump 
plunger and Fig. 188 the same piece properly dimensioned. Fin- 
ished surfaces are ordinarily indicated by a letter ''/" placed 
across the line which represents the surface to be machined. 

Elements of Dimensioning. — Constructions can be separated 
into parts and these parts can then be divided into geometrical 



DIMENSIONING 



79 



solids. Each of the sohds can then be dimensioned and their 
relation to each other fixed. Figs. 189 to 193 show a prism, a 
pyramid, a cone, and a cyhnder with dimensions. Figs. 194, 
195, and 196 show combinations. Note that the same location 
of dimensions is maintained. In dimensioning cylinders give the 
diameters on the elevation as in Fig. 195. Placing of the five 




Fig. 187 




Fig. 188 



diameters on the end view would result in crowding as well as 
inconvenience in reading figures placed at an angle. Always 
give a diameter in preference to a radius if the part is a complete 
cyhnder. For quarter rounds, fillets, and part circles give the 
radius. 

General Rules. — To dimension a drawing successfully the 
construction of the pattern, machining, fitting, and putting to- 
gether of the machine must be gone over. It is necessary to keep 
constantly in mind the person to whom the drawing is addressed 
and the purpose for which it is to be used. 



80 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Hints: 



Do not humjy 

Give sizes of pieces for the pattern maker, 

Give sizes and finish for the machinist, 

Give assembly dimensions. 

Give -office dimensions, 

Give notes where needed. 




Fig./ 89 






ATv 




■-r- 




r VVl 




; 


v_ 


\J T 


V! 






Fig. 190 






^ 




^rJ 



















,: 


Q - 

1 





-^ 








" 






-Q- 



rig 192 





y/////////y/A 


r?- 




\ 


'///////////// 







Fig. 191 



Fig. 193 




Fig. /9^ Fig. /95 

It is necessary to remember that surfaces and not lines are 
being located. The dimensions of the piece must be kept in 
mind. Detail drawings are generally made to serve both pattern 
maker and machinist, and the figures indicate the size of the 
finished piece. The pattern maker is left to make required 
allowances for finish, shrink, and draft. In the case of forgings 
two drawings are sometimes made, one for the blacksmith giv- 
ing the rough sizes, and another for the machinist giving the 
finished sizes. 

Systems of Dimensioning. — Four general systems of dimen- 
sioning may be mentioned as follows: 

1. All figures outside of the object lines. 

2. All figures inside of the object lines. 

3; All figures given from two reference lines at right angles to each 

other. 
4. A combination of the preceding three systems. 



DIMENSIONING 



81 



The four systems are illustrated in Figs. 197 to 200. The 
first method is to be favored as the dimension lines and figures 
are kept separate from the interior and allow details to be easily 

seen. The size and i L 

shape are separated. 

The second method 

may be used when 

there is little detail 

within the view. It 

preserves the outline 

of the view but often 

there is confusion due 

to the crossing of the 

lines and crowding of 

the figures. The third method is particularly adapted to plate 

work and laying out where holes must be carefully located. 

The fourth method is the one generally used but making it 






-* >i 


^ >- 


.^ 


., 




V 


1 y 










' 




1' 




-* »■ 








r/g./gy 



r/g, 196 



conform to the first system by placing dimensions outside when- 
ever it is conveniently possible. 
• Location of Dimensions. — Facihty in manufacture should be 
a motto in dimensioning. The figures must be so placed as to be 
easily found and perfectly clear in their meaning when found. 
Select that view which most completely defines the object and 
start with it first. If an assembly drawing, dimension only one 
piece at a time and finish all views of that one piece before starting 
another. Put on similar dimensions at the same time, as diame- 
ters, lengths, etc. Do not jump from one piece to another. Work 
from the more important dimensions to those of less importance. 



82 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



See that all center distances are given. Consider the effect of 
location upon ease of reading the drawing. Similar pieces should 
be dimensioned in exactly the same way. Fig. 201 shows a gland, 





-• 


^ 


<i 






» 


A 


> 


h 






\ 1 


' 1 








-^ >- 












r/g. J 99 



Fig. BOO 



Fig. 202 a pump valve, and Fig. 203 a cyUnder head. They are 
all similar pieces and the dimensions are located in the same 
places on each. In the three figures the similar dimensions are 
indicated by the letters A, B, C, etc. 

By observing such methods a system of dimensioning can be 




K 



T 



1 



'^\^ 



^ 



i 






2^^ 






H 



rig. 20/ 

employed which will save a great deal of time and many mistakes 
and omissions. It is seldom necessary to repeat the same dimen- 
sion on a drawing. Drilling is generally best located in the 
view where it shows in plan, that is, in the view where it is laid 
out. Diameters are always clearer when shown on a section 



DIMENSIONING 



83 



or elevation rather than on an end view. The drilHng for flanges 
is dimensioned by giving the diameter of the bolt circle and 
the size of bolt holes or bolts. The holes are understood to be 
equally spaced unless noted otherwise. 

Shafting. — Shafting should be dimensioned by giving the 
diameters and lengths together with the sizes of keyways and 
pins and their location. Shafting is made from various grades 
of wrought iron and steel. For many purposes cold rolled shafting 
is generally used. This is shafting which has been cleaned of 
scale and rolled under pressure. It can be used without the 




F/g. E>02 

necessity for turning and is considerably strengthened by the 
surface skin which comes from the rolling process. Hot rolled 
shafting is black and must be turned to size before using. Usual 

sizes are: 

Nominal Diameters of Shafting 



1V4 


2V2 


4 


1V2 


2V4 


4V2 


1V4 


3 


5 


2 


3V4 


5V2 


2V4 


3V2 


6 



These are nominal sizes and are Vie inch larger than actual 
diameter. Thus a 2-inch shaft is V-^jv^' actual diameter. Com- 
mon lengths vary up to 24 feet. Special shafts have to be forged 
of steel suitable for the particular purpose. A shaft drawing is 
shown in Fig. 204 with the positions of the dimensions. 



84 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Tapers. — Various methods are in use for designating tapers. 
Figs. 205, 206, and 207 show ways of indicating the two diameters 
and the length. Sometimes a note is employed giving the taper 




rig. 303 



per foot of length as, "^A'' per jooi.^^ When the slope is con- 
siderable it may be given as 1:1, indicating a 45° slope. In other 
cases the angle may be given in degrees. In addition there are 




Fig. 90^ 



a number of standard tapers in use such as B & S (Brown & 
Sharpe), Morse Tapers, Reed Lathe Center Tapers, Jarno Tapers, 
and Sellers Tapers. In such cases the taper is indicated by a 
number which fixes the three dimensions, large diameter, small 
diameter, and length. A machinist's handbook should be con- 
sulted for complete information. 



DIMENSIONING 



85 



Small Parts. — There are many small parts such as shafts, 
pulleys, etc., which can be defined in one view by using a note 
to give the missing dimensions. When clearness is not sacrificed 
it is better to use this method in many cases. Small details 
which are standardized do not need to be completely dimen- 
sioned. This is true for holts and screws, standard tapers, piping, 
wire, sheet metal, rope, chain, pins, rolled steel shapes. 

Methods of Finishing. — In connection with dimensions the 
limits of accuracy for all fits should be given. The method of 




/. 



/=^/g. 205 




Fig. 206 




^ 



rig.eo? 



~T 



finishing is given in another chapter, and should be indicated 
by a note and arrow. 



1. Rough. 

2. Rough turned. 

3. Ground. 

4. Polished. 

5. Reamed. 

6. Cored. 

7. Running fit. 



8. Loose fit. 

9. Driving fit. 

10. Scraped. 

11. Finished. 

12. Drilled. 

13. Chipped. 

14. Spot faced. 



Checking Drawings. — The checking of a drawing is one of 
the important duties of most draftsmen. Whenever possible it 
should be done by someone who has not worked on the drawing. 
The first thing to do is to see if the drawing can be used without 
unnecessary difficulty, and to see if the parts are such as will fit 
and operate successfully. There must be clearance for moving 
parts. Then observe if sufficient views are given to completely 
determine the parts, and that all dimensions necessary for machin- 
ing and erecting are given and that they are properly located. 
Check the correctness of all figures by use of the scale and by 
computation. All notes should contain a clear statement and 



86 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

be carefully located. Standard parts should be used where 
possible. See that the fewest number of different sizes of bolts 
and similar small parts are used. Consider the materials of 
which the parts are made, the construction of the patterns and 
cores, and the method of machining. A valuable article on 
''How Machinery Materials and Supphes are Sized" is given in 
'* Machinery," February, 1916. 



CHAPTER XII 
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION 

Machine Operations. — The parts of machines which come 
from the foundry, forge, or rolhng mill generally require finishing, 
such as machining to size, drilling, tapping of holes, etc., before 
they can be assembled in the machine of which they are to be a 
part. A knowledge of what is involved in the processes of ma- 
chining is important to the machine draftsman. The principal 
machine operations are turning, drilling, boring, planing, and 
milling. The machines used are lathes, drills, boring mills, 
planers, milling machines, shapers, etc. 

In order to pursue the subject of drawing with profit at least 




Fig . ^O 8 Fig 209 

one book on machine tools should be purchased and studied. 
The advertising pages as well as the reading pages of such mag- 
azines as ''American Machinist" and ''Machinery" are further 
sources of information which should not be neglected. Every 
opportunity should be availed of to observe and study work as 
it is carried out in pattern shop, forge, foundry, and machine shop. 
Such knowledge is invaluable and will often enable the draftsman 
materially to reduce the expense of production by simplifying or 
adapting his designs. 

Drills. — Drills are used for making holes of comparatively 
small diameter. Two forms of drills are shown in Figs. 208 and 
209. The first is a flat drill and the second a twist drill. The 
latter is the form in general use. Drills are used in different 
forms of machines. Look up the following in the advertising 
pages of "American Machinist" or "Machinery": Sensitive Drill, 
Drill Press, Multiple Drill. 

87 



88 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



The Steam Engine. — It is important for the draftsman to 
learn the names of the parts of the steam engine. Fig. 210 shows 
the principal parts. 









M^S=S± 






1. Cylinder head. 

2. Piston. 

3. Casing or lagging strip. 

4. Cylinder. 

5. Piston rod. 

6. Steam chest cover. 

7. Steam port. 



8. Slide valve. 

9. Exhaust port. 

10. Valve rod stuffing box. 

11. Valve rod gland. 

12. Valve rod. 

13. Eccentric rod. 

14. Eccentric. 



MACHINE CONSTRUCTION 



89 



15. Outer bearing. 21. Frame. 

16. Main shaft. 22. Crosshead pin. 

17. Fly wheel. 23. Crosshead. 

18. Inner bearing. 24. Crosshead guide. 

19. Crank. 25. Connecting rod. 

20. Crank pin. 

Steam is admitted to alternate sides of the piston by means of 
the slide valve which is actuated by the eccentric through the 
eccentric rod. The piston transmits the pressure of the steam 



\ 




^^ 




Fi'q. ^/I 




f^ig. 2/2 



through the piston rod, crosshead, and connecting rod to the 
crank. The crank causes the shaft to revolve, carrying with it 
the flywheel, from which power may be transmitted by means of 
a belt. 

Pistons. — Pistons are used in many forms of machines and 
vary accordingly. Some forms are shown in Figs. 211 and 212. 
The names of the parts for the form of steam piston shown in 
Fig. 212, are ^ p.^^^^ ^^^^ 

2. Follower, 

3. Follower Bolts, 

4. Bull Ring, 

5. Packing Rings. 

To prevent loss of pressure by leakage past the piston some form 
of packing ring is generally employed. Pistons are most always 



90 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



made of cast iron as are the rings. The rings are turned to a 
sHghtly larger diameter than the cyhnder. A piece is then cut 
out and the ring is then sprung into place. For water pistons 




Fig. 2/^ 



F/g. 2/5 



a soft packing of hemp, fiber, or leather is used. For large vertical 
engines steel pistons are sometimes used. 

Sliding Bearings. — Sliding bearings are of many forms, as 
shown in the following figures. The general end sought is to 
have the projected area of slide such that the pressure will not 
force out the lubricant and allow the metals to come into contact 
with each other. Smoothness of surfaces is only relative and 






Fig. 2/6 



F/g. 217 



Fig. 2 16 



surfaces in contact wear rapidly, hence the necessity for efficient 
lubrication. 

Fig. 213 shows a form of planer guide. It is self-adjusting for 
wear and can be easily oiled. There is, however, considerable 
pressure between the inclined surfaces, which means that the 
power for operating the table increases as the angle A is de- 
creased, and also the wear. A is commonly made 90° or less for 
small planers, while for heavy planers it may be 110° or more. 
The side pressure of the tool must be considered in selecting the 
proper value of A since it exerts a tendency to raise the table 
from the ways. 



MACHINE CONSTRUCTION 



91 



Fig. 214 shows the form generally used for lathe ways. It is 
self-adjusting, does not readily hold chips or dirt, but is not so 
easily kept oiled as Fig. 213. 

There are many other forms of such bearing surfaces, some of 
which are provided with gibs for adjusting, as in Fig. 215. Com- 





Ftg. p/9 



Fig. 2^0 



F/g.22l 



mon forms of crosshead guides for steam engines are shown in 
Figs. 216, 217, and 218. Fig. 218 is used on all sizes of engines, 
and is satisfactory, since it allows the crosshead to adjust itself 
to the crank pin and connecting rod if turned concentric with the 



(777/////////////:^ 





\< A 



wm^m 



r/g. 223 



d. 



F/g.22^ \ 




Fig. 22 5 



cylinder. Sometimes, however, the guides are turned with centers 
as in Fig. 219. This prevents turning. 

For small pressures the form shown in Fig. 220 is often used, 
sometimes with one rod only. Fig. 221 is another form of sliding 
bearing. The pressure per square inch of projected area on cross- 
head guides should not exceed 100 pounds per square inch and 
may well be kept as low as 40 pounds per square inch. 

Wear and Pressure. — Where there is much wear care must 
be used in the design of a sliding bearing and guide. Provision 
should always be made for running over at the ends of the guide. 
The same applies to the width of the guide. The effect of guides 
which are too long is shown much exaggerated by the shoulder 



92 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



"C^' in Fig. 222. Fig. 223 shows the correct design in which the 
shde runs over the guide at each end and causes more even wear. 
If ''A" and "B^^ are made of equal length there will be equal 
wear. This same principle is involved in the piston and cylinder 
of a steam engine which accounts for the counterbore over which 




F/ff. 326 



Fig. 2PS 



the piston runs, ''C" (Fig. 224), and similarly for slide valve seats 
(Fig. 225). 

Stuffing Boxes. — Some common forms of gland and screw 
stuffing boxes used on engines, pumps, etc., for preventing leakage 
of steam or water around the piston rod where it passes through 
the end of the cylinder are shown in Figs. 226, 227, and 228. For 
rods IV4 inch in diameter or less the conunon screw stuffing 




%'' 



-y ^ ng. 



^ 



f/g. c-so 



Fig. 23/ 



box. Fig. 228, may be used. They are generally made of com- 
position although they are sometimes made of cast iron for cheap 
work. The gland stuffing box (Figs. 226 and 227) is used for 
rods IV2 inch and more in diameter. The box should be deep 
enough for four strands of packing and the gland so constructed 
as to be able to compress it to about one half its original size. 
These glands may have the bottom of the gland and box beveled 
as shown in Fig. 227. They may be lined with composition in 
which case the lining should be at least ^/le inch thick, but for 
rods less than 2^/2 inch diameter it is generally advisable to 
make the gland entirely of composition. These are the com- 
mon forms, but the student will do well to investigate some of 



MACHINE CONSTRUCTION 



93 



the various types of metallic packings, since they are largely 
used in good designs. 

Useful Curves and Their Application. — There are many small 
details in the actual drafting of a design which often give trouble 
out of proportion to their apparent importance when first en- 




Ftg. ^32 



countered. The following suggestions are made to facilitate 
the drafting part of design, and not as rules to be strictly adhered 
to. Various curves which are commonly used are shown. 

Fillets and Rounds. — The drawing of fillets and quarter 
rounds deserves attention, since they are of so frequent occurrence. 
Fig. 229 shows a portion of a machine. The centers and radii 
of the various arcs are indicated. All radii are too large, but 



r/g.33S 



rig. S36 





A 



Fig. .237 



Fig ^30 



it 



Fig. ^39 



especially 1 and 2. Radius 1 gives a point at y. Radius 2 is so 
large that it cannot be used for the complete circumference of 
the boss as indicated at x. Of course a changing radius of fillet 
might be used, but this would not allow the use of ready made 
fillet strips. Fig. 230, in which the limiting radii are used, is an 
improvement. Fig. 231 shows a much better design. Note that 
the radii 1 and 2 are less than the thickness of the flange and 
boss respectively. The effect of a quarter circle is obtained by 
this method in which the flange and boss each start with a straight 
line. The straight line also produces a better appearance after 
finishing off the surface of the boss. This is shown in Figs. 232, 
233, and 234, where the effect of different fillets is indicated at B 



94 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



in each of the views. In the first case there is an undercutting, 
in the second view B shows the irregular outhne produced, while 
the third case shows the correct design. 

Arcs and Straight Lines. — When arcs are used in connection 
with straight lines the fault shown at a in Figs. 235 and 237 should 
be avoided. Do not run the arc past the tangent point ''a", 
and notice that the line a-h is a straight line in Figs. 236 and 238. 




F/g.^^o 



r/g. 2^/ 



rig. ^^3 



Fig. 2^3 



At A in Fig. 239 is shown the effect of not changing the radius 
when two parallel lines are continued by arcs. At B the thick- 
ness of material has been kept by maintaining the same center 
and changing the radius by the distance i. 

Flanged Projections. — When flanged projections are used 
with bolts or nuts they may take^a variety of shapes, some of 




Fig. 2^^ 






Fig. 2^ 7 Fig. 2^& 



which are shown in Figs. 240 to 243. After locating the centers 
of the bolt holes the extent of the flange may be found by adding 
twice the bolt diameter to the distance between bolt centers. 
Frequently the outline is obtained as in Fig. 240 in which an arc 
is drawn from the center of the bolt hole with a radius equal to 
the diameter of the bolt. 

A much better appearance is obtained by using a larger radius 
whose center is at the intersection of the bolt hole and the center 
hne, as shown in Fig. 241. Either straight or curved lines may 



MACHINE CONSTRUCTION 



95 



be used to join the small and large arcs. Sometimes an ellipse 
may be used. A gland is used for illustration, but similar cases 
occur in pipe connections, the bolted feet of machines, etc. 

Flange Edges. — Flanges are often finished with curves so as 
to avoid machining. Several forms are shown in Figs. 244 to 
248. The radius R may be taken equal to the thickness T. The 
centers for the various radii are indicated. 

Flanges and Bolting. — A method of finding the diameter of 
bolt circle and diameter of flange is illustrated in Figs. 249, 250, 
and 251. For through bolts consider Figs. 249 and 250. Draw 




D^ 



Fig. 2^9 



Ci 



^^ 



Fig. 2S/ 



/) 



in a proper fillet at n. For a trial the radius Tx may be taken 
as one fourth of the thickness of the cylinder wall t. Then lay 
off X, equal to one half the distance across flats of bolt head, 
and 7, equal to one half the distance across corners of nut. The 
diameter of the bolt circle, Ds, may now be found by laying a 
scale on the drawing and selecting a dimension. This will be 
equal to, or greater than, c? + 2(^ + n + X), and may be taken 
at the nearest Vsth inch. The flange diameter may then be 
obtained by laying out the distance F, as in Fig. 249, and using 
the scale to find an even dimension equal to, or greater than, 
Dfi + 2( F+ r2). The radius r^ may be taken at Vsth to Vieth 
the thickness of the flange. When studs are used the diameters 
I>B and Dp may be greatly decreased as shown in Fig. 251. The 
distance C should be about equal to i, although if necessary it 
can be made equal to one half the diameter of the bolt. 

Keys. — Keys of various forms are used to prevent relative 
motion between shafts and pufleys, gears, crank arms, etc. The 
common forms are here shown. Fig. 252 is called a saddle key 
and may be used where only a small force is to be transmitted 



96 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



and where close or frequent adjustment is required. Fig. 253 is 
called a flat key, and requires a flat spot upon the shaft. Its 
holding power is a little greater than the preceding form. Set 
screws are sometimes used with Figs. 252 and 253 to secure a 
closer contact. Fig. 254 is the most common form, and may be 
either square or rectangular in section. The sides of the key 
should fit closely in the hub and shaft. Various proportions 
are given for keys. Square keys are often made with 

4 





ng. 253 




r/g. 255 
Other proportions are 



Unwin gives 



r/g. 256 



4 

6 4 



T = VsZ) + Vs" 




F/g. 257 



The taper for keys may be from Vieth to ^/leths of an inch per 
foot of length. One eighth inch is often used. The key should 



MACHINE CONSTRUCTION 



97 



be half in the shaft and half in the hub. When the force to 
be transmitted is very large two keys may be used. In such 
cases they are generally placed 90° apart. The length of keys 



C 



J 



n 



F/g. e5e 



F/g. e:^9 



r/g. ^eo 



should be one and one half or more times the diameter of the 
shaft. Fig. 256 shows the Lewis key, invented by Wilfred Lewis. 
The direction of rotation for the driving shaft is indicated. It 
will be noted that this form is wholly under compression. Fig. 
255 is a different way of locating a square key. The side iS may 
be taken as one fourth the diameter of the shaft. Fig. 257 shows 
a round key. It is a desira- 



ble form when it can be used, 
as when located at the end 
of a shaft. Fig. 258 shows 
the ordinary plain key; Fig. 
259, a key provided with a gib 
to make its removal easier. 
Fig. 260 shows a round end 



^ 



1 



\ 



-h- 




rfg. ^e/ 



key which may be fitted into a shaft. Such keys are often used 
when it is desired to arrange for a part to slide on the shaft. 
When a long key is secured in a shaft and used for this purpose it 
is called a feather or feather key. Square end keys may be used 
in the same way. Fig. 261 shows the Woodruff Key, which con- 
sists of a part of a circular disc. They are made in a variety of 
sizes with dimensions suiting them to different purposes. The 
circular seating allows the key to assume the proper taper when 
a piece is put onto the shaft. 



CHAPTER XIII 
SKETCHING 

Uses of Sketching. — Freehand sketching is of particular 
importance in connection with drafting and will be briefly con- 
sidered in this chapter. All that has been said in the previous 
chapters concerning the theory and practice of drafting applies 
to freehand sketching. The term sketching must not be con- 
sidered as indicating incompleteness, for if anything a sketch 
must be more complete than a mechanically executed drawing. 
Sketching is the engineering language of the trained executive 
as well as a convenient and quick method of representation. 
Sketches are used to give information from which parts are to be 
made; they are used for repair parts; new parts; as an aid to 
reading drawings; as an aid to design; as a means of recording 
ideas, and for many other purposes. 

Accuracy of thought, observation, representation, and pro- 
portion are essential. The four '^P's" of sketching are practice, 
patience, proportion, and proficiency. Too much emphasis can- 
not be put upon the necessity of accuracy in proportion and 
detail. 

A most interesting example is shown in Fig. 262 which is a 
reproduction of a sketch for the first steam hammer as drawn by 
James Nasmith. Quoting from Nasmith's autobiography by 
Samuel Smiles: * ''I got out my 'scheme book,' on the pages of 
which I generally thought out, with the aid of pen and pencil, 
such mechanical adaptations as I had conceived in my mind, and 
was thereby enabled to render them visible. I then rapidly 
sketched out my steam hammer, having it all clearly before me 
in my mind's eye. In a little more than half an hour after re- 
ceiving Mr. Humphrie's letter, narrating his unlooked-for diffi- 
culty, I had the whole contrivance in all its executant details, 
before me in a page of my scheme book. The date of this first 
drawing was November 24, 1839." 

* Published by Harper and Bros., New York. 

98 



SKETCHING 



99 



Materials for Sketching. — The materials necessary for sketch- 
ing are a 2H drawing pencil, pencil eraser, art gum, and paper. 
Either plain or squared paper may be used, but it is better to use 
the plain paper at first so as not to be dependent upon the aid 








FiQ. 262. — First Drawing of Steam Hammer, November 24, 1839. 

which the squares give. The pencil should be kept well sharpened 
with a long round point. It is desirable to have a small board 
on which the paper may be tacked, or clip boards such as are 
used by bookkeepers will be found very convenient as a means 
of holding the paper. Every sketch should have a title, the date, 
and the name of the person who made it. 



100 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Making a Sketch. — To make a sketch the following order 
may be pm'sued. First examine the object, determine the num- 
ber of views necessary completely to define it, and observe the 
proportions. Then proceed to sketch very lightly, locating 
center lines and blocking in the limits for all views. Sketch 
in the details and then go over and brighten up wherever necessary 
in order to make all parts clear and definite. Straight lines may 
be drawn by making a succession of short straight lines or by 



F/g. 263 




Fig. 2 6^ 



F/g.26S 



marking points and drawing from one point to another. Views 
should be blocked in completely with straight lines regardless of 
the number of curves and circle arcs. 

To sketch a circle draw center lines at right angles (Fig. 263), 
space off radii, as shown in Fig. 264, on the center lines and in 
between them. Another method is to block in a square made up 
of four smaller squares (Fig. 265), then sketch in one fourth of 
the required circle at a time. 

Taking Measurements. — There are a great many tools used 
for determining the sizes of machine parts and constructions. 
The names of some of the tools should be learned together with 
the methods of using them and the conditions under which they 
are used. For this purpose the reader is advised to secure a 
catalog of machinist's tools. Some of the tools used for various 
purposes are: 

The two foot rule for comparatively rough work. 

The standard steel rule for more accurate work. It should have 
both binary and decimal divisions. 

Steel tapes used for measuring rather long distances. 

Straight edge, used for extending surfaces. 

The square, used in a variety of forms; fixed, adjustable, com- 
bination. 



SKETCHING 101 

Calipers, used for obtaining distances. There are many forms; 
outside, inside, spring, transfer. 
Surface plate and surface gage. 
Depth gage and hook gage or scale. 
Plurnb boh. 
Micrometer. 
Vernier caliper. 
Plug and ring gages. 
Wire and sheet metal gages. 
Screw thread gages. 
Radius gages. 

The surfaces to be measured are flat surfaces and curved sur- 
faces. These will appear in many combinations and will require 
separate consideration in each case. Cylinders may be measured 
directly with the calipers or scale. A steel tape may be used to 
measure the circum- 
ference of a large cyl- 
inder and the diameter 
calculated. Angular 
measurements are 
made with some form 



O D O 



/^/^. ^^e 



of protractor. The bevel pi'otractor and center square are useful 
for this purpose. The use of chalk or a marking solution is often 
necessary or convenient. Curved outlines may be obtained by 
offset measurements, by rubbing an outline on paper, or by 
making a template by such means as the conditions permit. 
Center distances may be found by measuring from the edge of 
one hole to the corresponding edge of the next hole as indicated 
in Fig. 266. 

The question of accuracy in taking measurements will arise 
frequently. The finished or machined parts should be measured 
as accurately as the means at hand will allow. Shafts or sliding 
blocks, or wherever a fit is involved, should* be measured with the 
micrometer or similar accurate means. Rough castings of small 
or medium size may be measured to the nearest Vieth inch, while 
larger ones may be near enough when measured to Vs or even 
\/4th inch. In all cases judgment must be exercised, and when- 
ever in doubt take measurements as closely as possible under 
the conditions. 



102 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Where the parts being sketched are for repairs or replacement, 
very accurate measurements are often required, and in the case 
of a fit allowance for wear must be made. If a whole new machine 
or construction is to be built much time can often be saved by- 
less accurate measurements, as the parts will be dimensioned to 
go together when the final drawing is made. Ingenuity and 
common sense are the primary requisites. 

In connection with measurements it will be necessary to know 
something of standard nomenclature. For instance, the three 





Cam 



Grooi^e - file. 
Chip or Scratch 



Not a/ike 




m^^^z^mMm. 



Note center punch 
rrrorAs 



Fig. 269 



rig. 2(5 7 



dimensions of a taper are indicated by a single number and a 
name. 

Some Ideas on Sketching. — The difficulties which are to be 
met and overcome when making sketches under trying circum- 
stances with limited time, inaccessability, with a machine in 
operation in close quarters, etc. — is little understood or appre- 
ciated by those accustomed to the conveniences of the drafting 
room. 

Many times sketches are made only for one's own use and 
so can perhaps be made a little less presentable than when made 
to take the place of a drawing. However, there is a warning 
which must be sounded, and that is the unvarying rule "to pre- 
serve definiteness under all circumstances." A sketch may be 
hastily made, but a careless sketch is worse than useless. Be 
sure that what is given is right and of certain meaning. The 
steps which must be followed in making a sketch are: 



SKETCHING 



103 



Drill 
3 Lugs 
jEquQ /ly 3p a ced 



Sketch the parts. 

Put on diinension lines and notes. 

Measure the parts and fill in the figures. 

Some considerations to be kept in mind are : — 

Use part views to show special features or details. 

Use notes freely but not as a substitute for necessary views. 

Show hexagons, octagons, etc., across flats using a note to tell 
the number of sides or insert a revolved section. 

Note identification marks, and mark parts to facilitate putting 
them together and 

for fixing relative \\ V_i\ 

positions. 

Note finished 
surfaces and kinds 
of finish. 

Use templates 
whenever in doubt 
as to curves, loca- 
tion of drilling, etc. 

Note materials 
of which machine 
or parts are made. 

Measure sizes of 
holes as well as of 
bolts, shafts, etc. '^' 

A small amount of surface shading is often of value. 

Note the location of the machine in reference to other machines 
or to building features if such information has any possibility of 
being useful. 

Rods, bolts, bars, and long pieces of uniform section can gen- 
erally be shown in one view. 

Most machines and some parts of machines will carry the 
manufacturer's name and identification, sometimes stamped into 
the machine, and sometimes on a name plate. The information 
given in this manner should ahvays be noted in connection with 
the sketch. Sometimes parts are either right or left hand, and 
this fact should be noted. It is a good plan to examine all parts 
very carefully for identification marks. 

When parts bear a definite relation to one another, prick punch 
marks or a filed groove will often be of great assistance in re- 




104 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



assembling (Figs. 267 and 268). Oftentimes the top or bottom 
of a part should be marked. Where a number of bolts are used 
with reamed holes they are often numbered or otherwise marked 
(both bolt holes and bolts, Fig. 269) . Very often part views may 

be used to save time by adding a note : 

For instance, a circular object with lugs, 

j ^ — I 4 ^^^ ~V as shown in Fig. 270. In the case of 

cyhndrical objects the word '' diameter" 

will often save a view. A washer 

in Fig. 271. Sections are rather freely 

It is 



^^ 



TZ^ 




Fig. 27 1 

would be sketched as 

used in sketching as they give prominence to the sketch, 
often desirable to make a separate outline sketch without dotted 
Unes in connection with a sectional drawing of a part, especially 
when the sketches must be hastily made, as the two sketches 
result in less confusion than when combined in one view. 

When sketches are made in connection with diagrams for the 
transmission of power, or a 
mechanism of any sort, the com- 
putations should be included 
with the sketch, and existing 
pulleys or other parts should be 
clearly dimensioned and indi- 
cated to distinguish them from 
proposed additions. In the case 
of foundations where bolts are 
to be located, differences in level 




Corbel 



Tb/r?p/at& of 
Corbe/ is 
U5efu/ to /ocafe 

F/g. 272 



must be considered as well as center line distances. When locat- 
ing shaft hangers, or constructions to be fastened to a wall or 
ceiling, the surroundings such as parts of the permanent struc- 
ture, like beams or corbeling of the brick wall (Fig. 272), 
should be measured and sketched with the part to be installed. 

The principal point to be brought out in connec'ion with sketch- 
ing of any kind is to leave nothing to guess — to have too much 
rather than too little information, and to make every Une and note 
absolutely definite. 



CHAPTER XIV 



ESTIMATION OF WEIGHTS 



Accuracy. — It is often necessary to compute the weight of 
machine parts or of piles of materials; for instance, to estimate 
the amount of coal on hand. The annual stock taking of many 
companies requires much of this work which must be accom- 
plished accurately and expeditiously. Some of the methods used 
should be known together with the degree of accuracy required. 
For some purposes a result within 5 % or even 10 % may be suf- 
ficiently close, while in other cases an accurate result may be 
desirable, as when figuring a large number of pieces of expensive 
material. The weights of many standard parts are well known 
and are given in manufacturers' catalogs. The weights of steel 
shapes are known and tabulated in pounds per linear foot, the 
weight of bolts per 100, and similarly for other pieces. 

Weights of Materials. — The following weights are average 
values for various materials and may be used for ordinary cal- 
culations. 



Material 



Cast Iron . . . 
Wrought iron 

Steel 

Brass 

Copper 

Lead 

Aluminum . . . 

Granite 

Brick 

Concrete .... 

Water 

Spruce 

White pine . . 
Yellow pine . . 

Maple 

Lignum vitae 
Oak 



Pounds per 
Cubic Inch 



.26 
.28 
.29 
.30 
.32 
.41 



.036 



Pounds per 
Cubic Foot 



450 
480 
490 
530 
550 
710 
160 
170 
120 
145 

62.5 

30 

30 

41 

45 

83 

50 



105 



106 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Weight of Loose Materials. — In estimating the amount of 
material in a pile, its shape may be approximated to one or more 
geometrical forms and its volume computed. This is best done 
by making a sketch with dimension lines which are filled in with 
measurements. Such sketches should be preserved for checking 
purposes and as a record. The weight per cubic foot or yard is 
then obtained by loading a car of measured volume and weighing 
it or by filling a box containing a cubic foot or yard and finding 
the net weight. The material should of course be disposed as 



/^ Thick 




Fig. ^73 

near the density of the pile as possible. By careful judgment 
and some experience a very close approximation of weight may be 
obtained in this manner. For more accurate work, the surveyor's 
transit may be used. 

Weight of Castings. — The computation of the weight of cast- 
ings most frequently occurs either in connection with the cost or 
where a machine must come within certain limits of weight. 
The weight may be calculated from the drawings. For simple 
objects this is not difficult, but for many shapes much loss of 
time may be saved by systematic methods and proper division 
into elementary forms. Two sets of weights must be considered; 
one the object in the rough, and the other the finished piece. 
Allowances for finish must be made. It is necessary to know 
what holes or openings are to be cored and what ones are to be 
machined. Cylindrical pieces are readily figured by dividing 



ESTIMATION OF WEIGHTS 



107 



into separate cylinders. Limits as to weight are very important 
when machines must be assembled in out of the way places, or 
where transportation is by pack mules or other primitive means. 

Methods of Calculation. — The general method of finding the 
weight of a piece is to compute its total volume in cubic inches 
and then multiply this volume by the weight of a cubic inch of 
the material. Most pieces may be divided into flat plates, cylin- 
ders, and flanges, each of which should be lettered and tabulated. 
Sometimes fillets may be balanced against bolt holes or against 
rounded corners. In other cases the fillets may be considered 
as a certain per cent of the whole. The weight as figured should 
also be increased to allow for rapping the pattern in the mold. 
The allowance for finish may be ^1%' for general work but this 
varies with different classes of work and with the degree of 
accuracy required in the finished piece. 

When a piece has a uniform thickness but irregular outline it 
may be broken up into plane figures and the area of each found 
separately (Fig. 273). After adding them together multiply by 
the thickness to obtain the volume and then by the unit weight 
to find the total weight, as illustrated. The dash lines divide the 
flat surface into seven parts, each of which is lettered. These 
may be listed in tabular form. 



Designation 


Part 


Dimensions 
Inches 


Area 
Square Inches 


A 


Rectangle 


4 xV4 


3. 


B 


<< 


IV4 X 1 


1.75 


C 


« 


5V2 X IV4 


6.875 


D 


« 


4V2 X 1 


4.5 


E 


Triangle 


V2(2V2 X 41/2) 


5.625 


F 




1/4(86 - 28.27) 


1.93 


G 


Circle 


74(3.1416) 


.785 



Total area square inches . . . 

Volume = area x thickness 

= 24.47 X 1.25 = 30.59 cubic inches 



24.465 



The area of part G is one fourth the area of a circle having the 
radius indicated. The area of part F is found by subtracting one 



108 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



fourth the area of a circle having the radius given from the area 
of a square, one side of which is equal to the radius of the arc. 
With irregular shapes the area is sometimes divided approxi- 
mately into regu- 
lar figures, the 
dimensions for 
which are ob- 
tained by apply- 
ing the scale to 
the drawing. This is illustrated in Fig. 274 where the dash line 
x-x is drawn so that the area B appears to be equal to the area 
A + A. The distance H is then measured and multiphed by L to 
find the area. In the case of hollow pieces, find the volume as 
though the piece was soHd, then subtract the volume of the spaces. 




/^/ff. 2Z^ 




^0 



f^ 



A 



C 



B 



Fig. 2 y5 

In Fig. 275 the volume would be found as tabulated, in which 
the A and B are called plus (+) volumes and C is called a minus 
( — ) volume. 



Designation 


Part 


Dimension 


Volume in Cubic Inches 




+ 


- 


A 


Square prism 


3 X 3 X 27-2 


22.5 




B 


Rectangular plate 


5x6x1 


30. 




C 


Cylinder 


1 X 3.1416 x3 




9.42 



Totals 52.5 



9.42 



{A ^B) -C = Net volume 
52.5 - 9.42 = 43 + cubic inches 



ESTIMATION OF WEIGHTS 



109 



For the ring shown in Fig. 276 find the area of the cross section A 
and multiply by the circumference of the mean diameter. This 
method is often a convenient one. 

Weight of Cylinder Head. — To find the approximate weight 
of the small cy Under head of Fig. 277 it may be divided into 



A' 




Mean Diamefer- 

Fig. S76 



three cylinders, two positive and one negative. The round at 
X may be balanced against the fillet at y for approximation pur- 
poses. Allow say ^jx^Xh inch on each of the finished surfaces. 
The calculations will be as tabulated. 




Designation 


Part 


Dimensions Inches 


Volume Cubic Inches 


+ 


- 


A 
B 
C 


Cylinder 

<< 


28.27 X ^^6 

9.62 x^8 
4.91 X Vs 


15.90 
3.61 


1.84 


Total 


19.51 


1.84 







{A + B) - C = net volume 

19.51 - 1.84 = 17.67 cu. in. 

Vol. X wt. per cu. in. = total weight 

17.67 X .26 = 4.60 pounds 



no 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




""If 




=:-=r^ ^ I I I 



CM 



Weight of Plunger Barrel. — To approximate the weight of 
the pump barrel shown in Fig. 278. First divide it into parts as 
indicated in the figure. The plus volume treats it as a solid. 
The minus volume consists of the interior cylindrical spaces 



ESTIMATION OF WEIGHTS 



111 



H, G, F, and /. The calculations for its cost at ten cents per 
pound follow. For any other price multiply by the required 
cents per pound and divide by ten. Since both ends are alike 
only one half is figured and the result is then multiplied by two. 



Design tion 



A 
B 

C 

D 
E 

F 
G 
H 



Part 



Flange 
Stuff box 

Main cylinder 

Port flange 
Foot flange 

Cylinder 
Throat 
Stuff box 
Port 



Dimensions Inches 



12 X 12 X IV4 



^^^^X3V. 
X 14V2 



4 

7r(6.5) 



7 X 7 X IV4 
4 x8 X IV4 
7r(5)2 



4 

7r(4)2 
4 

7r(6)2 
4 

7r(3)2 



X 14 

XV4 

x4 



xlVi 



Total volumes 



Volume Cubic Inches 



+ 



180 
154 

481 

G2 

80 



957 



274 



116 



11 



410 



Multiplied by 2 for two ends 



1914 



820 



1094 cu. in. net volume 
1094 X .26 = 285, pounds weight 
285 X .10 = $28.50, cost of casting at 10 cents per pound 

Weight of Forgings. — Steel and wrought iron shafts may 
be readily figured, especially when turned from stock bars or 
rods. Forgings, however, require careful consideration as the 
rough forging may weigh from 25 % to 50 % more than the finished 
piece, especially if the shape is at all complicated. 



CHAPTER XV 
PIPING 

Piping Materials. — Pipe made of various materials is used 
for conveying liquids and gases. For a complete treatment of 
the subject of piping and its uses, piping drawings, etc., see the 
author's ''Handbook on Piping," D. Van Nostrand Company, 
N. Y. The illustrations for this chapter are from the above book. 




Tee 





Cross 



£:/t>oi^ 






Y- Branch 



f?/ght ^ /<?// Cot/p//ng 

Fig. 279 



ffeturn Bend 



Cast iron pipe is cheaply made and is used for underground 
gas, water, and drain pipes, sometimes for steam and exhaust 
pipes where low pressures are carried. 

Wrought iron or steel pipe is most commonly used, especially 
where high pressures are encountered. Copper is used to a certain 
extent where there is limited room. For hot water or bad water, 
brass pipe is to be preferred as it does not corrode like iron or 
steel. Spiral riveted steel piping is often used for large pipes. 

Pipe Fittings. — For joining lengths of pipe and making turns 
and connections, ''fittings" are used, Fig. 279. Such fittings 
consist of flanges, couplings, tees, ells, crosses, etc. Small pipe 
is often "made up" by means of couplings and screwed fit- 
tings — large sizes use flanges and flanged fittings. Some general 
information is given in the tables included in this chapter. 

112 



Gats l/a/ys 



I I Cross 

Y 






£I/6oyv 



PIPING 113 

X^ S/hoyv^ '-\G^\— /b/i^e - /^/a^ |-^~^ Throttle l^a/^& 



l^/^e 



Y- Branch 



P 



i^a/k's 



-fl- 



/x'/ser 



"^ 



3 E/bo>v 






m 





JjrJ>'J''J(>i7J5 



^ 45 £/boyv 



J "2^ Reducing 
Coup/ing 



3"R%LCoap//nff 



j'G/obe A^/«^<? 



^W^~ 3"^ 2 "Bushing 
^ \ ^ < 2 Pipe F/angt. 




3 Coup/ing 



3 Union 



-rt -I R- j'Check l/a/i^e 



II S"r/ange Union 



r/9.2ej. 




— 3 Pipe Nut 

i=Hi 3'h"'^3 5ideOa//ef 
£/doi\^ 
-3" P/u^ 







Fig. 262 



114 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



The representations of Figs. 280 and 281 are often used when 
making piping layouts. 

Standard Pipe. — Wrought pipe is known by its nominal inside 
diameter. In the United States the Briggs Standard is in general 
use. The nominal diameter differs from the actual diameter by 
varying amounts, as indicated in the Table. Standard pipe is 




.075' 



Complete f breads 
69" 



Fig. pes 

used for pressures up to 125 pounds per square inch. Extra 
strong and double extra strong pipe are made for use at higher 
pressures. The extra thickness is obtained by reducing the in- 
side diameter, the outside diameter remaining constant for a 
given nominal diameter. The actual cross sections for the 
three weights of ^A inch pipe are shown in Fig. 282. 

Pipe Threads. — Pipe threads are cut with an angle of 60°, 
with the top and bottom rounded, making the height .8 of the 
pitch. The threads are also cut on a taper of three fourths inch 
per foot as illustrated in Fig. 283. 





Dimensions of Standard W 


ROUGHT Pipe 




Nominal 

Diameter, 

Inches 


Actual Inside 

Diameter, 

Inches 


Actual 

Outside 

Diameter, 

Inches 


Threads 
per Inch 


Length of 

Perfect- Thread, 

Inches 


Vs 


.269 


.405 


27 


.19 


V4 


.364 


.540 


18 


.29 


Vs 


.493 


.675 


18 


.30 


V2 


.622 


.840 


14 


.39 


V4 


.824 


1.050 


14 


.40 


1 


1.049 


1.315 


IIV2 


.51 


1V4 


1.380 


1.660 


IIV2 


.54 


IV2 


1.610 


1.900 


IIV2 


.55 


2 


2.067 


2.375 


IIV2 


.58 


2V2 


2.469 


2.875 


8 


.89 


3 


3.068 


3.500 


8 


.95 


3V2 


3.548 


4.000 


8 


1.00 


4 


4.026 


4.500 


8 


1.05 



PIPING 



115 





*- 


-^A — 


-^ 




-^ 


A^ 


h-^-^ 




-) 






L. 


\ 










^ 




1 


— 


-f 










^ 


\. 




r- ♦ 




r/g. P&^ 



Dimensions of Walworth Mfg. Co. Cast Iron Fittings 



Size of 


A 


A-A 


B 


c 


D 


E 


F 


G 


Pipe, 
Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


V4 


V4 


IV2 


V16 


... 


• 


1 


74 


78 


Vs 


Vs 


IV 4 


V16 


IV16 


2Vl6 


178 


7 16 


V16 


V2 


IV16 


278 


^Vl6 


iVs 


2Vl6 


I7l6 


78 


72 


V4 


IV16 


2V8 


^Vl6 


2Vl6 


2V4 


174 


7l6 


7l6 


1 


IV2 


3 


V16 


2V2 


374 


27l6 


72 


78 


IV4 


PV16 


3V8 


IV16 


3 


3V4 


272 


7 16 


V16 


IV2 


2 


4 


IV16 


31/4 


4V4 


274 


78 


^7l6 


2 


2V8 


4V4 


iVs 


4 


572 


378 


^7l6 


78 


2V2 


2V8 


5V4 


1V8 


5 


6^7 16 


478 


^7l6 


1 


3 


3Vl6 


6V8 


1V8 


5V8 


778 


474 


V16 


1 


3V2 


31V16 


7V8 


2Vl6 


6V8 


874 


574 


1 


I7l6 


4 


4 


8 


2V4 


7V8 


974 


6 


I7l6 


178 



116 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



American Standard Pipe Flanges 
125 Pounds Working Pressure 



Pipe Size, 
Inches 


Diameter 


Thickness 


Diameter of 


Number 


Diameter 


of Flange, 


of Flange, 


Bolt Circle, 


of 


of Bolts, 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Bolts 


Inches 


1 


4 


V16 


3 


4 


V16 


IV4 


4V2 


V2 


3V8 


4 


V16 


IV2 


5 


V16 


3V8 


4 


V2 


2 


6 


Vs 


4V4 


4 


Vs 


2V2 


7 


"/16 


5V2 


4 


Vs 


3 


7V'2 


V4 


6 


4 


Vs 


3V2 


8V2 


^Vl6 


7 


4 


Vs 


4 


9 


^Vl6 


7V2 


8 


Vs 


4V2 


9V4 


^Vl6 


7V4 


8 


V4 


5 


10 


V16 


8V2 


8 


V4 


6 


11 


1 


91/2 


8 


V4- 


7 


I2V2 


P/16 


10V4 


8 


V4 


8 


13V2 


IVs 


11V4 


8 


V4 



HAPTER XVI 



INTERSECTIONS 

The Line of Intersection. — The hne of intersection of two 
surfaces is that line which contains all the points which are on 
both of the surfaces. Objects in general are made up of parts 
and where these parts come together there is said to be a line of 
intersection, as shown in Figs. 
285 and 286. The chimney 
intersects the roof and there is 
also an intersection between 
the dormer window and the 
roof. The intersection be- 
tween two cylinders is shown 
in Fig. 286. 




Line of 
/nfersecf/'on 



/7$r. ^&S 



L/ne of /nfersecf/'on 



It is often necessary to determine the intersection of two sur- 
faces, either to find the appearance or for purposes of develop- 
ment. 

The intersection between two planes is a straight line as shown 
in Fig. 287. If these planes cut a cylinder or cone the lines of 

intersection may be straight or 
curved (Figs. 288 and 289). If 
the plane is at right angles to 
the axis a right section is cut as 
shown by the horizontal planes 
which intersect the cylinder and 
cone in circles. If the plane 
/g.^e& passes through the axis it inter- 

sects the cylinder in a straight line parallel to the axis called an 
element. In like manner an element may be cut from the cone. 
Note that all the elements of a cylinder are parallel, and that all 
the elements of a cone pass through the apex. 

Intersecting planes, elements, and cut sections are the basis 
for finding lines of intersection of surfaces. 

117 




118 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Intersection of a Vertical Prism and a Horizontal Prism. — 

Fig. 290 shows a square prism intersecting a triangular prism. 
Two methods of solution may be used. First method: Examine 
the three views, then note that the top view shows where the 




Rg ^87 



Fig. 286 



Fig. 289 



edge A 5 of the square prism pierces the front face of the tri- 
angular prism at point B^. The front and side views of this 
point may be obtained by projection and are shown at E" and 5^ 
Note that the front view shows the intersection of the edge EF 

of the square prism 
with a vertical edge of 
the triangular prism. 
Project to the other 
views. Join the points 
thus found which will 
determine the projec- 
tions of a line of in- 
tersection between the 
two prisms. Second 
method : Imagine a 
vertical plane to be 
passed through the 
edge AB. This plane 
F/g. ^90 will intersect the face 

of the triangular prism in a vertical line x\j shown in the front 
view. Since the lines xxj and AB are in the same plane, the 
point in which they cross will show in the front view at B^ . By 
passing similar planes through each of the edges the other points 
may be found. 

Intersection of a Vertical Prism and an Inclined Prism — 
Visibility of Points. — The intersection of two prisms, one of 




INTERSECTIONS 



119 



which is inchned, is shown in Fig. 291. Either of the methods 
just described may be used, but the second method is to be pre- 
ferred. A cutting plane must be 
passed through each edge of both 
prisms within the hmits of the curve 
of intersection. This means all of 
the edges of either prism through 
which a plane may be passed that 
will cut the other prism. A plane 
passed through the front edge of 
the vertical prism would not cut 
the inclined prism, and so would 
not locate any points on the line 
of intersection. A vertical plane 
through line AB will intersect the 
front face of the rectangular prism 
in line C'D''. The point in which 
these lines cross is shown in the 
front view at B^. Since both lines are on visible faces of the 
prisms the two hues are visible and the point B"" is visible. Lines 




/^/^. ^9/ 




Fig. 292 

of intersection in order to be visible must join two visible points 
determined as stated. A vertical plane through the edge EF 
will intersect the inchned prism in two hnes parallel to the inclined 



120 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



edges as shown. Each of these incUned Unes intersects the edge 
EF so that the two points G and H are located. The edge EF 
would be visible if the inclined prism was not in front of it. The 
two inclined lines, however, are on the back or invisible faces of 
the inclined prism and so are invisible. The points G and H are 

therefore invisible. A line joining 
two invisible points or one visible 
and one invisible point is invisible. 
Lines which are visible in one view 
may or may not be invisible in 
another, and should be considered 
separately. 

Intersecting Cylinders. — Two in- 
tersecting cylinders are shown in Fig. 
292. Divide the small cylinder into 
equal parts and then pass planes 
which will cut elements from both 
cylinders. The planes w, x, y, and z 
cut elements 1,2,3, and 4 from the 
cylinders. The points in which ele- 
ments in the same plane cross are shown in the front view at 
points 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., thus determining the curve of intersection. 
Use as many planes as are necessary to obtain a smooth curve. 




F/g. ^93 




Fig. £>9^ 




U-/?/a.-M 



Plane 


4 -\- 






/ \ 


\ 


L 


/ \ 


\ 


> D/a. J 



Be sure to pass planes through the contour or outside elements 
of both cyUnders in order to obtain the extreme limits of the 
curve. This is very important, especially when the axes of the 
cylinders do not intersect. 

Choice of Cutting Planes. — Whenever possible planes should 
be passed so as to cut straight lines from both surfaces. The 
hues (not parallel) on the same plane intersect in points which 
are common to both surfaces and are therefore points in the 
curve of intersection. The intersection between surfaces can 
very often be found by horizontal cutting planes, as indicated 



INTERSECTIONS 



121 



in Fig. 293, which would be employed for the cases presented in 
Fig. 294 and similar conditions. Considering Fig. 293 it will be 
observed that horizontal cutting planes are used. Each plane 
cuts a straight line from the prism and a circle from the cone. 




r/g. ^95 

as shown in the top view. Where the line and the circle cross is 
a point common to the prism and the cone. Other points found 
in the same way will complete the curve of intersection. 

Connecting Rod Intersection. — Fig. 295 shows a portion of a 
connecting rod of circular cross section with a rectangular end. 



122 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

The circular section is increased where it joins the rectangular 
portion. The curves of intersection are found as described. 
Notice that the centers for the radii RiRi are in the same per- 
pendicular line. Di is the diameter of the rod. There are certain 
"critical points" and these will be mentioned first. Where i^i 
cuts the width of the rectangular part in the top view gives point 
a^ and this point will fall on the center line in the side view and 
so is projected to a^. In a similar manner point b^ may be pro- 
jected to the top view at point 6^. The end view is needed to 
obtain the other points. With as a center and the corner 
distance OC as a radius, draw the arc CCi. Continue the radius 
Ri in the side view. A horizontal line through Ci will intersect 
radius i^i at C2 from which C^ and C^ may be projected. The 
radius OC gives the largest circle which will touch the rectangular 
section and so determines one end of the curve, as shown. A 
plane passed through C^ or to left of point (T and perpendicular 
to the axis will give a rectangular section. A plane to the right 
of point C^ will give other sections which will be described. 

To determine the curve in top view. Two points b and c are 
already determined. For any other point d in end view, draw 
an arc ddi, with od as a radius. From di project horizontally to 
c?2 and then as shown to d^ in the top view. 

To determine the curve in the side view. Two points a and c 
are already determined. Take any point e in the end view and 
with a radius oe draw arc eei; project horizontally from ei to 62. 
The intersection of a vertical line through 62 with a horizontal 
line through e will give point e^, sl point on the desired curve. 
Point / and other points are found in the same manner. It will 
be observed that a plane through e and perpendicular to the axis 
would give the section indicated by section lines in the end view. 



CHAPTER XVII 
DEVELOPMENTS 

Surfaces. — Surfaces may be divided into two classes, plane 
surfaces and curved surfaces. Plane surfaces show in their true 
size and shape when they are parallel to one of the planes of 
projection, so that an object bounded by plane surfaces can 
have each of its faces brought into contact with a piece of paper, 
either by wrapping the paper about the object or placing the 




r/g. ^96 



object on the paper and then turning it until each face has touched 
the paper. This is shown in Fig. 296 where the paper has been 
cut so it will exactly cover the object when it is folded about it. 
Such an outline is called a development. A curved surface does 
not show in its true size no matter how it is placed with regard 
to the planes of projection. Some kinds of curved surfaces 
can be developed by rolling them on a plane as illustrated in 
Fig. 297. The distance L is equal to the distance around the 
cylinder and the height R of course remains equal to the length 
of the cylinder. Other surfaces, such as the surface of a sphere, 
cannot be exactly developed, but there are approximate methods 
which are generally accurate enough. 

123 



124 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



Development of a Prism. — The prism of Fig. 296 is developed 
by laying out in a straight hne and in the proper order the distances 
1-4, 4-3, 3-2, and 2-1, which added together are equal to the 




Fi 9^297 



distance around the prism. At each of the points a line is drawn 
equal to the long edge of the prism and the ends joined together. 
Then the two ends of the prism are measured out as shown. 
The development of the lateral surface of a hexagonal prism 




is shown in Fig. 298. First lay off in a straight line and in proper 
order the edges 1-2, 2-3, etc., all the way around the prism as 
shown at the right. At points 1,2,3, etc., draw the perpendiculars 
equal in length to the edges of the prism, thus obtaining the true 
size and shape of each face of the prism and in such order that 



DEVELOPMENTS 



125 



they might be folded to the form of the prism. Note that a 
square prism intersects the hexagonal prism which has been cut 
along the curve of intersection. To find the cut-out on the de- 




8 9/0 II 12 



2 3^567 



velopment draw the vertical hnes A, 5, and C on the faces of the 
hexagonal prism and locate them on the development by measur- 
ing their distances from the edges 2 and S. The points of inter- 




Fig- 300 

section may then be located by drawing horizontal lines as shown 
or by measuring up or down the lines on the front view of the 
hexagonal prism and measuring the same distances on the same 
hnes of the development. The development of the top and 



126 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




r/g. 30/ 




bottom of the prism may be obtained from the top view and 
added to the lateral surface. 

Development of a Cylinder. — The development of a cylinder 
was illustrated in Fig. 297. One half of a square elbow is de- 
veloped in Fig. 299. First divide the top view into a number of 
equal parts. Through each point draw an elemen of the cylinder. 
By taking the elements close enough together the arcs may be 
considered as straight lines. The problem is then the same as 

developing a prism 
with a large nima- 
ber of sides. Lay 
off the distances 
between the ele- 
ments along a 
straight line. At 
each point draw the 
element in its true 
length. Through 
the ends of the elements draw a smooth curve, very lightly free- 
hand, and then brighten it up using the irregular curve. The 
lengths of the elements may be conveniently found by drawing 
horizontal lines from the front view as illustrated. The develop- 
ment of the bases may be found by an auxiliary view and from 
the top view. 

Development of a Pyramid. — The development of a pyramid 
with a part cut away is shown in Fig. 300. Assume the pyramid 
to be complete. There are six equal faces, each one a triangle. 
The development consists in laying out all the faces in their true 
size and proper order. The short edges are shown in their true 
length in the top view as 1-2, 2-3, etc. The long edges are all of 
the same length and are equal to the distance 0^-1^ shown in 
the front view. Observe that 0^-1^ is horizontal in the top view. 
The faces may be constructed in their true size by drawing an 
arc, with Oi as a center and 0^1^ as a radius. Starting at li, 
space off the chords li-2i, 2i-3i, etc., equal to l'^-2'', 2^-S^, etc. 
Draw lines Oi li, Oi 2i, etc., representing edges of the pyramid. 
Construct the development of the base so that it may be folded 
into the proper position. Note carefully that the numbers on 
the base will match the numbers on the edges when the develop- 
ment is folded to form the pyramid. To show the part which 



DEVELOPMENTS 



127 




has been cut away measure the distance OiCi on the edge Oi4i 
equal to the distance O'^C'^. Measure distances oiBi and 3iAi on 
the development of the faces and of the base equal to the distances 
6^B^ and 5" A^ obtained from the top view. Join points AiCi 



128 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

and Bi on the development of the faces. On the development 
of the base construct the triangle AiBiCi obtaining distances 
BiCi and AiCi from the development of the faces. The com- 
pleted development is shown by the heavy lines. 

The Development of a Cone. — The development of a cone 
is shown in Fig. 301. Divide the base into a number of parts 
and draw elements of the cone. By taking the small arcs as 
straight lines the solution is the same as for a pyramid. The 
surface is thus considered to be divided into a number of equal 
triangles. This method is sufficiently accurate for most pur- 
poses. With the radius R draw an arc of a circle. On the arc 
space off the circumference of the base of the cone. The base 
need not be developed as it shows in its true size in the top view. 

Development of a Transition Piece. — A transition piece is 
shown in Fig. 302 connecting a circular pipe with a rectangular 
one. The development of such a piece should present no diffi- 
culties if the previous figures have been carefully studied. Com- 
paring the two views as given in Fig. 303 with the picture of 
Fig. 302, it will be seen that the transition piece may be ''broken 
up" into triangles and parts of cones. The triangles are ABl, 
BC5f CD9, and DAW, The parts of cones are the curved surfaces 
between the triangles. Consider the apex of one cone as located 
at B. Divide the portion of the base 1-5 into a number of parts 
and draw the elements B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4, and B-5. The 
triangles thus formed will approximate the surface of the cone. 
The lines AB, BC, etc. show in their true length in the top view. 
The true length of the elements may be found as follows: Con- 
sider a line to be dropped from point B perpendicular to the base 
of the cone. A line may then be drawn on the base of the cone 
from point 1 to the perpendicular line, thus forming a right triangle 
with the element B-1 as the hypotenuse. By constructing this 
right triangle in its true size the true length of B-1 may be found. 
This has been done in Diagram I. The length of the perpendicular 
line is shown at BX and is found by drawing the horizontal lines 
shown. The base of the triangle is equal to the length of the 
horizontal projection of B-1. Point 1 in Diagram I is found 
by making x-1 equal to B-1. In the same way find the lengths 
of the other elements by laying off 

x-2 equal to B-2 
x-3 equal to B-3 



DEVELOPMENTS 129 

etc., obtained from the top view. Then draw B-2, B-3, etc. 
the true lengths of the elements which are used in the construc- 
tion described below. In the same manner construct Diagram II 
for the other cone. Having found all the true lengths proceed 
as follows: Construct the triangle ABl, in its true size. With 
5 as a center and B2 as a radius, draw an arc. With i as a 
center and a radius equal to 1-2 obtained from the top view de- 
scribe another arc cutting the first arc. This will locate point 2. 
With B as a center and B-3 as a radius describe an arc. With 
^ as a center and a radius equal to 2-3 obtained from the top 
view describe another arc, thus locating point 3. Proceed until 
the four triangles forming the conical surface are properly located, 
then draw a smooth curve through the points 1,2, 3, etc. Con- 
struct triangle CBo, using the element55 as a starting side. Then 
develop the conical surface having C as an apex and 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 
as part of the base. Construct the triangle CD9 in its true size. 
Since the piece is symmetrical the remaining parts are the same 
as those already developed. 

All kinds of surfaces can be developed approximately by divid- 
ing them into triangles, then finding the true size of each triangle 
and arranging them in the proper relation to each other. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
PICTURE DRAWING 

Isometric Drawing. — By means of an isometric projection 
three faces of an object can be shown in a single view. This is 
possible by considering the object to be placed in the position of 
a cube standing on one corner and having another corner exactly 




F/ff. 304- 



F/g. SOS 



in the center of the view. In Fig. 304 the cube is resting upon 
point A in such a position that point B is located in the center of 









-1 






-* — / — J\ 


*-2 ■*• 








i 








^ 


1 


1 N^ 










\ 




F/g. 306 



r/g.S07 



the view obtained by projecting onto a vertical plane. The 
orthographic projection of this front view is shown in Fig. 305, 
which is called the isometric projection of a cube. In this view 

130 



PICTURE DRAWING 



131 



the line A 5 is vertical and the Unes BC and BD make angles of 
30° with the horizontal. All the edges of the cube show equal 
to each other in length. This length however is shorter than 




/=~/^. 306 




Fig. 309 



on the actual cube. For drawing purposes the lines 51), 5(7, 
and BA^ etc. are made the same length as on the actual cube. 
The angles formed by the three lines which meet at point B are 
equal to 120° each. The three lines are called the isometric axes 
and form the basis for isometric drawing. 




rig. 3/0. 




Fig. 31/ 



Isometric and Non-isometric Lines. — All measurements for 
isometric drawings are taken along or parallel to the isometric 
axes. Lines parallel to the isometric axes are called isometric 
lines. All other lines are non-isometric lines and cannot be 
measured directly. 

To make an Isometric Drawing of the Object shown in Fig. 
306. — Draw the isometric axes, BC, BA, and BD (Fig. 307). 



132 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



From B measure V/i' toward D, 1" toward C, and "^/s' toward A. 
From the points thus located draw lines parallel to the isometric 
axes and lay off distances corresponding to the figures given in 





/^/g. 3/ a 

Fig. 306. Note that lines which are parallel in Fig. 306 are 
parallel in Fig. 307. 

To make an Isometric Drawing of the Object shown in Fig. 
308. — Draw the isometric axes (Fig. 309) as in the preceding 
case. Locate the point F by measuring along BC. Locate 
point ^ by measuring along BC and then down parallel to BA 




T T 



Ffg. S/3 





Fig. 3/^ 



as indicated in the figure. Join F and E. Line FE is a non- 
isometric line. 

In Fig. 310 point E is located as before. Point T is located 
by measuring along BC to point & and then parallel to line BD. 
It is often convenient to think of the object as being placed in a 
box. This box can be put into isometric and the points in which 
the object touches it located. Other points can be located by 
taking measurements parallel to the axes. 

Angles. — Angles do not show in their true size in isometric 
drawings. This is evident from an inspection of Fig. 305 where 



PICTURE DRAWING 



133 



the angle at B is 120° and that at C is 60° although on the cube 
they are both 90°. The method of constructing for angles is 
shown in Fig. 31 L First make the orthographic projection, 
then transfer by taking distances parallel to the axes, as/^ and L. 




Fig. S/S 



Positions of the Axes. — The axes may be placed in any posi- 
tion provided the angles between them are kept equal to 120° 
as illustrated in Fig. 312. 





Construction for Circles. — When circles occur they appear as 
elhpses and may be drawn by plotting points from the ortho- 
graphic projection as in Fig. 313 or by the more usual approxima- 
tion shown in Fig. 314, where the hues are drawn perpendicular 
to the points of tangency of the circumscribing square. The 



134 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



intersections of these perpendiculars locate the centers for circular 
arcs which will approximate the eUipse sufficiently close for most 
purposes. In the figure 

TiTiT^T^, = tangent points 
Ci = center for arc T1T2 and TzT\ 
CiTi = radius for arc T1T2 and T3T4 
C2 = center for arc T1T4 and T2T3 
C2T1 = radius for arc TiT^ and T2T3 



Oblique 
Projection 



Or/hograph/c 
Project/on 



VL. 




F/g. 3/e 



The same construction is used for arcs of circles as shown in 
Fig. 315. 

The interior of objects may be shown by means of isometric 
sectional views, Fig. 316 and Fig. 317, which are constructed by 







Fig. 3/9 

the methods already described for exterior views. As shown, the 
sectioned surfaces are taken on isometric planes. 



PICTURE DRAWING 



135 



Oblique Drawing. — Another method of picture drawing often 
useful is obhque drawing or projection, in which the view is 
obtained by using projection lines oblique to the plane upon which 
the object is to be represented. In Fig. 318 the orthographic 
projection of a cube is shown and, on the same plane, the oblique 
projection of the same cube. The three hues which meet at 
point B are called oblique axes. Lines BC and AB are always 
at right angles but the line BD may make any convenient angle 




/="/^. 320 



with the horizontal. It follows that if one face of an object is 
parallel to the vertical plane, it will show in its true size and shape. 

After locating the axes the methods of construction given for 
isometric drawing apply to the making of oblique drawings. 
Many examples of oblique drawing are given throughout this 
book. The axes may be located in a variety of ways as shown 
in Fig. 319. 

The appearance of an object can often be imprgved by reducing 
the measurements along the oblique axis, using one half or three 
fourths of the full dimension. Measurements on the two per- 
pendicular axes remain unchanged. Two such treatments of 
a cube are shown in Fig. 320. Such views are called cabinet 
projection. 



CHAPTER XIX 
SHADE LINE DRAWINGS 

Shade Lines. — The use of shade hnes is a much discussed 
question. Each drawing has a purpose and if that purpose is 
better served by the use of shade hnes they should be employed. 




In many lines of work detail drawings are never shaded and this 
seems to be the best practice. Outline drawings or assembly 
drawings which serve partly, at least, as picture drawings are 
often improved by shading. 

136 



SHADE LINE DRAWINGS 



137 



System in Common Use. — In the United States a conven- 
tional system of shading is generally employed, in which the 
rays of light are assumed to be parallel, to come from the upper 












Q 




z 




^- 






M 







/^/p'. :^^s 




^/ff 324 





/='/g. 325 



rig 326 





rig. 32 7 




rig 32a 




/^/>. s^9 



r/g. 330 




Fig. 331 



r/g. 3S2 



and left hand corner of the sheet at an angle of 45°, and to he in 
the plane of the paper. The lower and right hand edges where 
the light passes over them are made heavy Hues called shade 
lines. When two surfaces are in the same plane the line of division 
between them is not shaded, Fig. 321. Circles follow the same 



138 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



rules as shown, where A is a hole and 5 is a solid cylinder. In 
all cases the extra thickness of line is without the surface which 




rig. 335 



it bounds (C, Fig. 321). Most all conditions of shading are 
illustrated in the figures given in this chapter, which should 
be carefully studied. 



SHADE LINE DRAWINGS 



139 



Surface Shading. — Various methods of hne shading on surfaces 
are used to show the shape of machine parts. Personal judgment 
is an important element in the matter of successful surface shad- 
ing. Fig. 322 shows a cylinder shaded by using fine lines and 
varying the distances between them. These change approxi- 
mately as the projections of equally spaced elements of a cyhnder. 






Fig. 336 

Another method is to space the shade lines about equally but to 
vary the width of the lines as in Fig. 323. The air chambers 
(Figs. 324 to 328) show a number of different ways of shading 
conical, spherical, and cylindrical surfaces. As shown, either fine 
lines near together or varying lines may be used with any of the 
methods illustrated. 

Shading Screw Threads and Gears. — On elaborate drawings 



# 








r/g.337 



F/g. 33S 



it is sometimes desirable to shade screw threads. Five ways are 
shown in Figs. 329 to 332. 

When gears are to be shown without drawing in the teeth the 
exterior is frequently represented by alternating heavy and fine 
lines as in Figs. 333 and 334 which show a pair of bevel gears 
and a pair of spur gears. The rest of the drawing may or may 
not be shaded. A pair of bevel gears are shown in section in 
Fig. 335. 

Special Surface Representations. — Other surfaces may be 
represented as in Figs. 336 to 338. Three ways of indicating 
a knurled surface are given in Fig. 336. For a scraped surface 
Fig. 337 may be used, and for a polished surface. Fig. 338. 

Patent Office Drawing. — Probably the most general use of 
shaded drawings is for Patent Office work. Such drawings must 



140 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



be made on pure white paper of a thickness equal to two or three 
ply Bristol board, using black ink. The outside dimensions of 
the sheet are 10 by 15 inches. Inside of this is a one inch margin. 
At the top of each sheet a clear space of one and one quarter 
inches must be left for a title which is printed in by the Patent 




Fig. 339 

Office. Fig. 339 shows the layout of a patent drawing. The 
fewest number of lines should be used; all dimension and center 
lines should be left off. The plane upon which a section is taken 
should be indicated. All parts are lettered or numbered. As 
these drawings are reproduced by the photo zinc process, all lines 
must be absolutely black and not too fine. If lines are too close 
together they will run together when printed. The '' Rules of 
Practice " of the United States Patent Office may be had for the 
asking and should be consulted by those interested. 



CHAPTER XX 



DRAWING QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 

Most of the drawing studies included in this chapter can be 
worked in an 11'' X 14'' space or in a division of the space as 
indicated in Figs. 340 to 343. The layout with dimensions for a 
regular size sheet is shown in Fig. 340. In some cases a large 
scale may be advisable in which case the full sheet may be used. 
An inspection of the problem will indicate the proper space where 
it is not given in connection with the problem. The order in 















(3 

TACK 


*^l '"-* 




'-h^ 


' 







-C / ■^ 


L 


.1 




. 
/ 




*-/^-* 


^ 1 "-t 

/ -7 " 










< /-;»■ 


a 




* 


// 












-^ 














1 














1 


yvoRHiNG space: 







" 

^ ^ 


1 






^ 
1 

^ 
^ 

E 



















f 
















\ 


' 


1 










=4 - 


\ 

















which the problems are given can be varied to suit the needs of 
the class. The question of inking is left for the instructor to de- 
cide. The author advises that it be delayed until the student 
has attained considerable proficiency in making pencil drawings. 
A variety of problems is included to allow a selection to be made 
and so that the course may be varied from year to year. A 
number of answers to questions should be neatly written or 

141 • 



142 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



lettered and numerical problems should be carefully worked out 
to create a coordination between drawing and other subjects, 
as well as to impress the student with the fact that the mere 
drawing of lines is not the aim of a drawing course. It is thought 





1 




7'-^//" 




- 




1 





1 




^i"^7" 




- 













(■^pprox) 













r/g 3-^/ 



Fig. 3^2 



/^'9- 34-3 



that such problems may create an interest and stir the student 
with the ambition to seek an engineering education. 

1. Describe the proper use of the T square. 

2. Show by a sketch the proper method of sharpening a lead 
pencil. 

3. How are horizontal lines drawn? 

4. How are vertical lines drawn? 

5. Show by sketches the proper adjustment of the pen, pencil, 
and needle points for a compass. 

6. Draw a straight line. Draw short lines crossing this line, 
and 2^/\q" apart. Draw another short line crossing the original 
line, and V/i&" from the last line drawn. From this lay off 
further distances of V /%" and '^^/\&". Add the four distances 
and check the total length by scaling the line. In measuring a 
line, place the zero of the scale opposite one end of the line and 
read the scale opposite the other end of the line. 

7. Draw a straight line. Set the dividers at ^/i%" and step 
off 10 spaces. Scale the distance thus found and check with the 
calculated length. 

8. What is the purpose of the knee joints in the compasses? 

9. Examine a drawing material catalog and list five tools in 
addition to those which you already have, that you would consider 
convenient for your work. 

10. What kinds of pens are used for freehand lettering? 

11. What kind of ink is used? 

12. What is the slope for slant letters? 

13. In what direction should the pen point? 

14. How is the amount of ink on the pen regulated? 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 143 

15. What hardness of pencil should be used for lettering'' 

16. How is the distance between letters regulated? 

17. 11" X 14" space. Starting V2" from top border line 
draw horizontal guide lines ^/s" apart. Use very light pencil 
lines. Make each capital letter of Fig. 15 or 16 five times. Re- 
peat the letters which cause most trouble. Use 2 H pencil. 

18. 5V2'' X 1" space. Starting V2'' from top border line 
draw horizontal guide lines Vs'' apart. Make each of the lower 
case letters of Fig. 15 or 16 five times. Height of letters a, c, e, 
etc. to be ^/i'. Height of letter 6, k, etc. to be ^/s". Use 2 H 
pencil. 

19. 5V2'' X 7" space. Same as problem 18, but use ball 
pointed pen. 

20. 5V2'' X 7" space. Starting V2'' from top border Une 
draw horizontal guide lines ^/^" apart. Make each capital letter 
of Fig. 15 or 16 five times. Use 2H pencil. 

21. 5V2'' X 7" space. Same as problem 20, but use ball 
pointed pen. 

22. 5V2'' X 7" space. Starting V2" from top of space draw 
horizontal guide lines Vs'' apart. Letter the following words, 
using Si 2H pencil: hill, late, lathe, bolt, quench, wrench, 

EQUIPMENT, TOOLS, CALIPERS 

23. 5V 2'' X 7 space. Same as problem 22, but using pen 
and ink as directed. 

24. 5V2'' X 7" space. Draw horizontal guide lines near the 
middle of the space for letters having ^/s' caps. Letter the 
following, using a 2 H pencil. Use caps and lower case of Fig. 
15 or 16. 

"Drawing is the education of the eye, it is more interesting 
than words. It is the graphic language." 

"Mechanical drawing is the alphabet of the engineer; with- 
out this the workman is merely a hand, with it he indicates the 
possession of a head." 

25. Prepare a title and material list for the step bearing shown 
in Fig. 175. 

26. Same as problem 24, but using pen and ink as directed 
by the instructor. 

27. Name and illustrate three kinds of triangles. 

28. Name and illustrate three kinds of quadrilaterals. 

29. What is a right angle? 



144 



I 
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



30. In order that the sills of a house may be square 6 feet has 
been measured off along one sill and 8 feet along the other. Nails 
are driven as in Fig. 344 at these points. What will be the dis- 
tance AC measured along a steel tape when the angle ABC is a 
right angle? 

31. A circle has a diameter of 2 inches. What is its circum- 
ference? Compare this distance with the sum of the sides of an 
inscribed hexagon. 

32. What is an elhpse? 

33. Can a true ellipse be drawn with circular arcs? 




/=-/g.^^^ 



34. Space 478^' wide, h^W high. Draw a hne 2^716" long 
and bisect it. See Fig. 32. 

35. Space as for problem 34. Draw an angle and bisect it. 
See Fig. 33. 

36. Space as for problem 34. Draw a line 2^716'' long and 
divide it into five equal parts, by method of Fig. 34. 

37. Space as for problem 34. Same as problem 36, but use 
method of Fig. 35. 

38. Space as for problem 34. Draw any angle and construct 
another angle equal to it. See Fig. 36. 

39. Space as for problem 34. Construct a triangle, having 
sides as follows: 278^'; 378^; and 2". See Fig. 37. 

40. Space as for problem 34. Construct an equilateral tri- 
angle, one side 27i6" long. See Fig. 38. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 145 

41. Space as for problem 34. Draw an isosceles triangle 
having a base of T j^' . Sides make 75° with the base. See 
Fig. 28. 

42. Space as for problem 34. Draw a right triangle. Hy- 
potenuse 3V2'' long. One angle is 30°. 

43. Space as for problem 34. Mark three points (+) not in 
a straight hne, and draw a circle passing through them. See 
Fig. 42. 

44. Space as for problem 34. Draw an arc of a circle. Radius 
2'', with center V2'' from upper and left hand edges of space. 
Make the angle AOB (Fig. 43) equal to 45°. Find length of the 
arc. Use first method of Fig. 43. 

45. Space as for problem 34. Same as problem 44, but use 
second method of Fig. 43. 

46. Space as for problem 34. Draw a circle 2^1^' diameter. 
Draw a tangent at any point on the circumference. See Fig. 44. 

47. Space as for problem 34. Draw an arc with a radius of 
V-U'. Draw a straight line intersecting this arc. Draw an arc 
tangent to the arc and straight Hne just drawn, radius ^/s". See 
Fig. 45. 

48. Space as for problem 34. Draw a hexagon in a circle 
having a diameter of 2'^ 1^' . See Fig. 39. 

49. Space as for problem 34. Draw a hexagon having a 
measurement across flats (Fig. 39) of 2V4''. 

50. Space as for problem 34. Draw a regular octagon inside 
of a Z^l^' square, See Fig. 40. 

51. Space as for problem 34. Draw a regular octagon inside 
of a 31/8'' circle. 

52. Space as for problem 34. Draw a right triangle having 
a hypotenuse Z" long, and one side 2" long. Draw a circle pass- 
ing through the points of the triangle. 

53. Space as for problem 34. Draw a line Z^!%' long and 
divide it into parts proportional to 2, 3, and 5. Use a method 
similar to Fig. 35. 

54. Space as for problem 34. Use 30° x 60° triangle and 
T square to draw a regular hexagon measuring ?P l\^' across 
corners. 

55. Space as for problem 34. Using the 45° triangle and 
T square draw a regular octagon that will just contain a circle 
SVie'' diameter. 



146 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



56. Space 5V2'' X 1". Draw an ellipse by concentric circle 
method (Fig. 49). Major axis b" . Minor axis 2". Find 24 
points. 

57. Space b'^/2" X 1". Draw an ellipse by trammel method 
(Fig. 50). Major axis b^^". Minor axis 2^/s". 

58. Space b'^/i" x 1". Draw a figm^e having the appearance 
of an ellipse by circular arcs, Fig. 51. AB == h" , CD = 2^/^". 

59. Space 5^/2" X 7'^ Draw a ^/a" square in the center of 
the space. Draw an involute of this square. 

60. Space 5^/2' X 7". Draw a semi-circle having its center 
V4'' from the left edge of the space and 3V4'' down from the top 




/=~/^. 3^S 




ri'g. S^z 





F'/g. S^a 



of the space. Radius of circle P/4''. Draw the involute of the 
semi-circle. See Fig. 53. 

61. Space b'^/2" X 1". Draw a parabola, Fig. 54. Distance 
AF = "^/s". Directrix perpendicular. 

62. Space 5V2" X 7'\ Draw a parabola, Fig. 54. Directrix 
horizontal. Distance AF = ^U'. 

63. Space 5V2'' X 7". Draw an equilateral hyperbola, Fig. 
56. Point P is \" from line OG and 2\U' from OR. Make 
distances PA^ AB, etc. V4''. 

64. Space 5V2" X 7". Draw the two views given and the 
side view of the prism. Fig. 345. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 147 

65. Space 5V2" X 1". Draw the two views given and the 
top view of Fig. 346. 



1 









-^ TT 


L 3 


-a 1 

• 


[*■■/<?'" 



VIEW 



r/g. 3^9 



1 

- 


> 








oZ .^ . /' .1 


1 "5 T 


'a 




\ 



VIEW 



Fig. 3^0 

















1 




! 




1 






yiEVi/ 
1 , 1 








_i 




v-li--\ 


t 




— // — 


1 

J" 


1 
1 

1 


> 


1 / 


\^^<?y/^ 




-/i — 




* C2 






f 

> 




^/^r. ^^/ 


/^/5^. 35a 





66. Space 5V2" X 1" . Draw the two views given and the 
top view of Fig. 347. 

67. Space 5V2" X 7''. Draw the top, front, and side views 
of a regular hexagonal prism, 
Fig. 348. Corners of hex 2V2''. 
Height of prism V2''. 

68. Space 5V2'' X T' . Draw 
three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 349. 

69. Space 5 V2" X 1" . Draw 
three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 350. 

70. Space 5V2'' X T' . Draw 
three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 351. 

71. Space 5V2'' X V . Draw 
three views of the object shown in Fig. 352. 

72. Space 5V2" X 7". Draw three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 353. 




Fig. 353 



148 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




-*J^|^ r/g.3S^ 




r/g. SSS 



y/£w 






—si 

y 

A ■ 


i 








-IM 





n'g. 3S6 




fig. 357 



VIEW 




r/g.sse 




rig. 3S9 




A 



y/r^ 



F/g. 360 




y'EiV 





r\ 


1 


7 


i. ' 

^•^ ; 1 



F/g. 36/ 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 149 



73. Space 5V2" X 1". Draw three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 354. 

74. Space b'^/2" X 7". Draw three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 355. 

75. Space 5V2'' X 1". Draw 
three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 356. 

76. Space b'/^" X 1". Draw 
three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 357. 

77. Space b^^" X 1". Draw 
three views of the object shown /^fg- 363 
in Fig. 358. 

78. Space 5V2" X 7''. Draw three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 359. 






Fig. 363 



Fig. 36^ 




79. Space 5V2" X 1" . Draw three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 360. 

80. Space 5V2'' X 7''. Draw three views of the object shown 
in Fig. 361. 



150 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



'^- 




'^- - 



Draw 
object 

Draw 
object 

Draw 
object 

Draw 

object 



81. Space5V2''x 
three views of the 
shown in Fig. 362. 

82. Space 57/' X 7' 
three views of the 
shown in Fig. 363. 

83. Space 51/2'' X 7^ 
three views of the 
shown in Fig. 364. 

84. Space 51/2'' X 7". 
three views of the 
shown in Fig. 365. 

The drawing of objects in 
other than their natural posi- 
tions furnishes excellent prac- 
tice in the study of projections. 
It is a useful test of one's knowledge of the theor}^ of drawing, and 
every student should have some experience with such problems. 
The method of solution for such problems calls for the loca- 
tion of each point in its three views and particular attention to 
relations of the lines. 

Three views of a hopper are shown in Fig. 366. When the 
bopper is revolved to 30° about shaft A A, the front view will 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 151 



show as in Fig. 367. The top view is obtained by projecting 
horizontally from the top view of Fig. 366 and vertically from the 
front view of Fig. 367. The front view of Fig. 367 is changed 
only in the position of the hopper. In the top view the distances 
parallel to the shaft A A have not been changed, as the revolu- 
tion has been about this axis. The side view of Fig. 367 is then 
obtained in the usual manner from the top and front views. 

With the apparatus in the position of Fig. 367, it may be re- 
volved about the shaft BB forward or backward. In this case 




f^/'g.369 




r/'g. 370 



-TT- 





ng.37/ 



rig. 372 



the side view of Fig. 367 will be unchanged except for its position 
as shown in Fig. 368. After drawing the side view the front 
view may be drawn by projecting across from the side view and 
down from the front and top views of Fig. 367. This is possible 
because the horizontal distances in the front view are parallel to 
the shaft or axis of revolution. The top view is obtained from 
the other two views in the usual way. 

85. Space 5V2'' X T' . Draw three views of the hexagonal 
pyramid in the position shown in Fig. 369. 

86. Space 5V2" X 1" . Draw three views of the pyramid of 
Problem 85 after it has been revolved as shown in Fig. 370. 

87. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Draw three views of the rectangular 
prism in the position shown in Fig. 371. 



152 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



88. Space h^/^' X 1" . Draw three views of the rectangular 
prism after it has been revolved from the position of Fig. 371 
about a vertical axis. Top view is shown in Fig. 372. 

89. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Draw three views and a complete 
auxihary view of the square prism shown in Fig. 373, after it has 
been cut by plane A- A and the part above the plane removed. 

90. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Draw two views and a complete 
auxiliary view of the hexagonal prism shown in Fig. 374, after it 
has been cut by plane A- A. 






< 



f}^'i^ 



Fig. 373 






-//- 



Fig. 374 





Fig. 3 75 




Fig. 376 



91. Space h^l 2' X 7". Draw the two views given and a 
complete auxihary view, Fig. 375. 

92. Space 5V2" X 7'\ Draw the two views given and a com- 
plete auxiliary view, Fig. 376. 

93. Space 5V2'' X 7". Draw a complete auxihary view. Fig. 
377. 

94. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Draw a complete auxiliary view. Fig. 
378. 

95. Space 11" x 14''. Draw the two views shown and an 
auxihary view of the foot pedal shown in Fig. 379. 

96. Space 11" x 14". Complete the views and draw an aux- 
iliary view of the molding, Fig. 380. 

97. Why are sectional views used? 

98. What is the relation of a sectional view to the other views? 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS AND STUDIES 153 




99. Space 5V2'' X 1". Draw a sectional view of Fig. 381 on 
a plane through the axis. 

100. Space 5V2'' X 1". Draw a sectional view of Fig. 382 on 
a plane through the axis. 



154 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




End y/e^v 


>W— ^ — \ 




^ 



Complete Front 
Vie^ Here 



■ICM 



Fig. 360 



101. Space 6V2'' X 1". Draw a sectional view of Fig. 383 on 
a plane through the axis. 

102. Space 5V2'' x 7". Draw three views of Fig. 381, chang- 
ing the proper view to a section on plane A- A. 

103. Space hy^' x 1" . Draw two views of Fig. 385, chang- 
ing the proper view to a section on plane A-A. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 155 



I 



"II* 



— /i- 

Hg. 361 






<^ 



> 



t 



'4 



1 



Fig. 362 



A- 



T 



:-i- 



T 



_L 



Ffg. 363 






^3 






-* 






'-4 






1 




.1 1 


7 


1 




■ 1 


'C e I' 
1 1 

< r 


<9 


i 


1 



Fig. 3ea 












/— » 


'P' 


-i- 



/^/g)- 365 







^t. 1 


A 






r— ' fe 


1 
1 
1 _ 

1 












'^i* 


1 




•^i-^ 1 



/^/•g*'. J'6'<5 



>.Vi 



'3 A 






1 



Fig. 387 



1 




1 


III' 

^_L 1 i_J__, 

1 ' 
1 1 


1 1 1 

1 1 1 
, L 1_J 

1 1 









-- 


1 

1 




-~1 






1 
1 



104. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Draw three views of Fig. 386, chang- 
ing the proper view to a section on plane A- A. 

105. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Draw three views of Fig. 387, chang- 
ing the proper view to a section on plane A- A. 

106. Space \\" x 14''. Draw three views of the sHde valve. 
Fig. 388. The missing view to be a section on plane A- A. 

107. Draw three views of the shackle, Fig. 186. 



156 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 







>' 






" "%. 


i" 


1 
1 


/■ 


i 




A 


1 '^ 

-Tr 

1 1 


1 
1 






^ 1 

1 












?' 


1 
^1 


^vii^ 




i ' 










. -r •» 










6J 


— >■ 





l^/^vw 



A 




r/g. 366 



108. Space 11'' X 14''. Draw 
a plan view and a sectional ele- 
vation for the elliptical cover 
plate shown in Fig. 389. Out- 
side dimensions 7" X 9". Six 
^Vie inch holes for bolts. The 
rise in the center is elliptical in 
plan. The bolts are to be spaced 
equal distances apart. Draw 
full size. 

109. 11" X 14" space. Draw 
two views of the crank shown 

in Fig. 390. This drawing is excellent as an inking or tracing 
exercise. 




rig. 369 



«J /^iffa/fr /^ ^. 




Fig. 390 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 157 

110. Compare briefly wrought iron and cast iron. 

111. What is cast iron? Name some of its properties. Com- 
pare its strength in tension and compression. 

112. What is wrought iron? How is it made? Name some of 
its properties. 

113. What is steel? How is it made? Name some of its 
properties. 

114. What material is used for bolts and nuts? 

115. How is malleable iron made and what is it used for? 

116. Of what material would you make the following and why? 

a. Steam Engine Cylinder. 

b. Water Pump Plunger. 

c. Piston-rod. 

d. Comphcated form of Lever. 

e. Shaft. 

117. What is meant by unit stress? Axial stress? Compres- 
sion? Tension? Shear? 

118. A tie-bar has a diameter of ''/s' and supports a load of 
8000 pounds. What is the unit stress? 

119. What load will a rectangular tension member measuring 
^/s' X I" carry safely if it is made of wrought iron? (Live load.) 

120. A hollow cast iron cylinder has diameters of 4'' and 3''. 
What safe compressive load will it carry if the load is steady? 

121. Compute the number of ^/i" bolts for a cylinder head 15'' 
effective diameter. Steam pressure is 150 pounds per square 
inch. Allowable working stress on bolts is 5000 pounds per 
square inch. The effective root area of a ^/^^ bolt is .302 square 
inches. 

122. A wrought iron bolt V/2' diameter has a head V/a" long. 
Its effective diameter is 1.284. When a tension of 14000 pounds 
is applied to the bolt, find the unit stress. 

123. What are some of the uses of screw threads? 

124. What advantage has the acme thread over the square 
thread? 

125. A triple threaded screw has a pitch of Vs inch. How many 
turns must it make to move a nut 6 inches? 

126. Express the following in terms of the diameter of the 
bolt; distance across flats of hex, thickness 0/ bolt head, and 
thickness of nut. 



158 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



127. In what way does a bolt head differ from a nut? 

128. Draw a 1" hex nut across flats and a 1" square nut across 
corners. Compare them. 

129. Space 5V2'' X 1". Draw one turn each of two heUces as 
started in Fig. 391. 

130. Space 5V2" X 1". Draw the exterior of a square threaded 
screw 3" long which enters V into the section of a square threaded 
nut. Pitch v. Other dimensions as in Fig. 392. 






r/g.39i 



PJTCH I" 



3 



^ 



vmy//yy//A 



VT^ 



F-ig.392 V//////////A 



T 







Y'^ 



'\ I I 



"1 



lU[ ^1 I 

BCD 
r/g. 393 




131. Space 5V^2'' X 1" . Draw four forms of screw threads in 
section as directed by the instructor. \" pitch. Fig. 393. 

132. Space 5V2'' X T' . Fig. 394. At ^, B, and C, draw 
three different plan views of threaded holes. At D and E draw 
two different representations of threaded holes in elevation. 
At F draw a threaded hole in section. At G, E, and /, draw 
three conventional representations of threaded bolt ends. Diam- 
eter for all representations to be 1 inch. 

133. Space 5V2" X T' . On axis A-B, Fig. 395, draw a ^W 
through bolt, hex head across corners and hex nut across flats. 
On axis C-T) draw a V-,!^' bolt, hex head across flats and hex nut 
across corners. Indicate required dimensions. 

134. Space 5V2" X 1" . On axis A-B, Fig. 396, draw a "^ W 
bolt, square head across corners and square nut across flats. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 159 



On axis C-D draw a Vs" cap screw, head across flats. On axis 
E-F draw a Vs'' cap screw, head across corners. 

135. Space b'^/2" X 7''. Draw the two views of collar and 









^ 






l-n 



^ r/g. 395 



A 



-//- 



■/J- 



Tc — 




1^- 



/^ig- 396 



F 




shaft, Fig. 397. On axis A-B draw a ^1%' set screw, head across 
flats. On axis C-D draw same set screw, head across corners. 

136. Space 5V2'' X 7". Draw the gland and stuffing box of 
Fig. 398. On axis A-B draw a V2" stud and nut. Show nut 
across flats. Make provision 
for the gland to enter one half 
the depth of the stuffing box 
when nut is screwed onto stud. 
Show required dimensions. 

137. Draw a plan and sec- 
tion for a double riveted lap 
joint as directed by the in- 
structor. 

138. Make a scale drawing of two plates joined together at 
right angles. 

139. Space 5V2'' X 7''. Draw sections on planes X and Y 
and a development of the riveted joint of Fig. 399. See Chapter 
VIII. Vie'' plates; ^Vie'' rivets; pitch 1^U^'\ lap IV2"; scale 
Z" = 1 foot. 

140. How many views should a drawing contain? 




Fig. 399 



160 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



141. What scales are in general 
use for working drawings? 

142. What are the first lines 
inked on a working drawing? 

143. Is true projection always 
used? Explain. 

144. Sketch and describe one 
form of stuffing box. 

145. Space 11'' X 14''. Make 
a working drawing showing three 
views of the slide valve shown in 
Fig. 400. One view may be a sec- 
tion. Completely dimension. 

146. Space 11" X 14". Make 

a working drawing of the bearing 

cap of Fig. 401. Show three views. 

^ ^^^ Completely dimension. One view 

Fig. ^00 1 4.- a 1 

may be a section. Supply any 

missing dimensions. See Chapter XV for size of ^1^' pipe. 





rig, 40I 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 161 




6^ Centers 



147. Make detail working drawings for the parts of the eccen- 
tric shown in Fig. 402. Supply any missing dimensions. Draw- 
ing should include a properly dimensioned bolt and set screw. 
Completely dimension the drawing. 

148. Make detail working drawings for the parts of the step 
bearing shown in Fig. 175. Scale 6" = 1 foot. Use two sheets, 
11'' X 14'' space. Completely dimension. 



162 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



149. Draw two views of Fig. 403. Each view should show 
true distances. Completely dimension. Submit a preliminary 
sketch to the instructor. 

150. Make a working drawing for the piece shown in Fig. 404. 
Submit a preliminary sketch to the instructor. 




F'i'g, 4oa 

151. Space h^l^' X 7''. Make a detail working drawing of 
the construction shown in Fig. 405, using one full view and such 
parts of other views as are necessary to define its true shape. 




rig. ^05 



152. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Make a working drawing of the sleeve, 
Fig. 406. One half view to be in section. 

153. Make a working drawing of the valve shown in Fig. 407. 
Show a proper treatment for a section on plane ABC. 

154. Draw a sectional view of Fig. 408. 

155. Make a detail drawing of the valve body of Fig. 409. 
One view in section. 

156. Make an assembly drawing of the 2" check valv^shown 
in Fig. 409. Draw a sectional elevation and an exterior end view. 
This drawing may or may not be dimensioned. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 163 



157. The filling-in piece, Fig. 410, is shown one half size. 
Scale the iSgure, draw full size, and completely dimension. 

158. The guide, Fig. 411, is shown one half size. Scale the 
figure, draw full size, and completely dimension. 




n'g.^07 



Scale the 



Draw 



159. The bracket. Fig. 412, is shown one half size, 
figure, draw full size, and completely dimension. 

160. The flywheel. Fig. 413, is shown one fourth size. 
to a scale of 6" = 1 foot, and completely dimension. 

161. The bearing, Fig. 414, is shown one half size. Scale the 
figure, draw full size, complete the 
views, and completely dimension. 

162. Draw a half end view and 
a sectional elevation of the pump 
centerpiece. Fig. 415. Choose a 
proper scale and completely dimen- 
sion. 

163. Space 5V2" X 1". Draw 
two views of the lever shown in 
Fig. 416. Both views are to show 
the true size of the lever. 

164. Make detail drawings of 
each part of the screw stuffing box 
of Fig. 417. Note that dotted 
sectioning is used here to indicate the separate pieces. This 
method is sometimes used to show the exterior and section in the 
same view. 

165. Make an assembly working drawing of the steam jacketed 
kettle shown in Fig. 418. Draw a half top view and a sectional 




i /fo/es 



F/g. ^06 



164 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 165 




-f-^ 



1 — r 



^s 




rig. <Z// 



Fig. a/0 

elevation. Such dimensions as are 
not given are to be supplied by 
the student. The required bolts 
are to be drawn and specified. 
The bosses for the pipe may be 
about twice the outside diameter 
of the pipe. Com- 
pletely dimension the 
drawing. The outer 
casing is supported by 
four ''feet" shown pic- 
torially. The flange of 
the kettle rests upon 
the flange of the outer 
casing, and is bolted 
to it. Scale IV2" = 1 
foot. Space ir'x \M' . 

166. At what stage 
should the dimension 
lines be put on a draw- 
ing? 

167. Make an assem- 
bly working drawing 
from the details of the 
connecting rod shown 
in Fig. 419. Draw one 
view in full and the 
other half in section 

and half full. Choose a suitable scale. If necessary a portion 
of the rod may be broken out. Supply required bolts for wedge 




rig.ai2 



Ss 



-^ 



-^ 



s 



^ 



/- 



S/W Arms 






F/g. ^13 



166 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




rig. 41^ 




block. Submit sketch of treatment to instructor for approval. 
Completely dimension. 

168. Make a drawing for the steam cylinder shown in Fig. 420 
as follows. Sectional elevation on plane A- A; half top view; 
and section on plane B-B looking toward the left. The three 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 167 

views are to be properly located and completely dimensioned. 
Show depth of tapped holes. Supply any necessary dimensions 
that are not given in the figure. Choose a suitable scale. 

169. Compute the weight of 
the Vee block shown in Fig. 335. 
Tabulate all figures. 

170. Compute the weight of 
the cast iron foot for the steam 
kettle, Fig. 418. Tabulate all 
figures. 

171. Compute the weight of 
the outer casing for Fig. 418. 
(cast iron). Tabulate all figures. 

172. Compute the weight for the kettle, Fig. 418 (cast iron). 
Tabulate all figures. 

173. Compute the weight of the cast iron pulley shown in 
Fig. 421. Tabulate all figures. 

174. How is the diameter of wrought pipe specified? 




rig. -^16 



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' 175. Sketch a 2'^ X 2" x V^W Tee, and mark the size on each 
opening. 

176. Sketch a cross section of a standard pipe thread. Indi- 
cate any special features. 

177. Draw two views of the piping shown in Fig. 422; one 
view as shown and the other in the direction of the arrow. Use 
a double line representation. See Chapter XV. 

178. Space 1" x 11". Find the curve of intersection between 
the two cylinders, Fig. 423. 



168 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




QUESTIONS, STUDIES, AND PROBLEMS 169 

179. Space 1" X 11''. Find the curve of intersection between 
the two cylinders, Fig. 424. 

180. Space 5V2" X 1". Find the intersection between the 
prisms of Fig. 425. 

181. Space b^^" X 7". Find the intersection between the 
two prisms of Fig. 426. 



-j 1 .^i ■ 












BRC^ZC Boxes 



weose BOLT 



182. Find the Une of intersection between the two cyhnders. 
(Fig. 294, first case.) Both diameters \^U'. Altitude 2V4". 
Axes intersect. 

183. Same as Problem 182 but axes ^1%' apart. 

184. Find the intersection between two cones (Fig. 294, second 
case). Diameters iVs" and altitude 2^1^'. Axes intersect. 

185. Same as Problem 184 but with axes V2'' apart. 

186. Find the intersection of a cone and a cylinder (Fig. 294 
third case). Diameter of cone = IV2". Diameter of cylinder 

= IV4". Axes intersect. Altitude 2V2". 

187. Same as Problem 186 but with axes V2'' apart. 

188. Find the intersection of a cone and a cyHnder (Fig. 
294, fourth case). Diameter of cone 3". Altitude of cone 3". 
Diameter of cyhnder 1''. Axes intersect. 

189. Same as Problem 188 but with axes V2'' apart. 



170 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



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190. Space 5V2'' X 7''. Find the line of intersection between 
the cone and hexagonal prism of Fig. 427. 

191. Space h^W X 1". Find the Hne of intersection between 
the sphere and hexagonal prism of Fig. 428. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 171 



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172 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 





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/ 


A 










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JJ 




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A 


1 


/ 

^ 


/ 








/ 


A 
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Spr/nff Co/fTcr Pin 



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192. Find the line of intersection between the cone and cyKnder 
of Fig. 429. 

193. Make a working drawing of the joint shown in Fig. 430. 
Find curves accurately. 

194. Make a drawing for a connecting rod end (Fig. 295) with 
dimensions as follows. Instructor will assign dimensions. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 173 



I. w = 2V2'' 


H =4" 


A = IV2" 


11. W = 3'' 


H =3" 


A = 2'' 


II. W = 


H = 


£>i = 




r/^. <s/ 



Y /^/^. ^^^ 



'^5' 




r/g. ^yj 




Fig. ^3^ 




rig. ^35 



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195. Space 0V2" X 7''. Develop the lateral surface of the 
rectangular prism, Fig. 431. 

196. Space 5V2" X 1" . Develop the lateral surface of the 
hexagonal prism^ Fig. 432. 



174 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




Fig. ^39 



Fig. ^^O 




Hg. ^^f 




r/g. 4-42 




]R Oeye/opme^n/- 




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Dei^e/opment 
A 



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^ Tri/e /engfh 
Mangles 



Pe^e/opment 



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197. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Develop the lateral surface and the 
upper surface of the cylinder, Fig. 433. 

198. Space 5V2'' X 7''. Develop the vertical piece of the 
square elbow, Fig. 434. 

199. Space 5V2" X 7". Develop the lateral surface of the 
pyramid. Fig. 435. 

200. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Develop the lateral surface of the 
frustum of a pyramid, Fig. 436. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 175 

201. Space 5V2'' X 1". Develop the lateral surface and the 
cut face of the hexagonal pyramid. Fig. 437. 

202. Space 5V2" X 1". Develop the lateral surface of the 
pyramid. Fig. 438. 

203. Find the area in square feet of the surface of the tent, 

Fig. 439. 

Width Length Height 

Size in in in 

Feet Feet Feet 

17 7 7 

II 9 12 7V2 

204. Find the area in square feet of the surface of the tent, Fig. 
440. 

^•. ^i^^^^''^ Length Width ^^^i. 

Size Wall ^^. y . Height 

Feet ^^^^ ^^^^^ Feet 

13 7 7 7 

II 31/2 16 12 71/2 

III 4 20 14 9 

IV 5 24 16 11 

205. Find the area in square feet of the surface of the tent, 
Fig. 441. 

Size I 7 feet square 7 feet high 

II 9 " " 8 " 

206. Find the area in square feet of the surface of the tent. 



g. 442. 

Size 


Size of 

Base 

Feet 


Size of 
Top 

Feet 


Height Height 

at Center at Side 

Feet Feet 


I 


7 square 


2V2 square 


7V2 6 


II 


8 


3 


8 6V2 


III 


10 


3V2 " 


9 7V2 



207. Space 5V2'' X 7''. Develop the circular cone shown in 
Fig. 443. Start with element AB. 

208. Space 5V2'' X 1". Develop the part of the surface of 
cone above the plane CD, Fig. 444. Start with element AB. 

209. Develop the portion of a conical surface shown in Fig. 
445. First lay out the true length triangles. Then start with 
element AB. 

210. Develop the transition piece of Fig. 446. 

211. Develop the transition piece of Fig. 447. 



176 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 




One ha/f c/ei^e/opment 



A 

t 



r/g. ^ae 




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T 



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212. Find the intersection of the two cyHnders in the three 
views, Fig. 448. Develop each of the cyUnders. 

213. Space 5V2" X 1" . Make an isometric drawing of the 
brass bushing shown in Fig. 175, in section. Full size. 

214. Space 11" x 14". Make an isometric drawing of the 
main casting of Fig. 175, in section. Full size. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 177 



215. Make an isometric drawing of Fig. 195. Dimensions as 
furnished by the instructor. 

A = [ ] i)2 = [ ] A = C ] A = C ] A = [ ] A = [ ] 
2.1 = [ ] L2 = [ ] La = [ ] L4 = [ ] L5 = C ] Le = [ ] 

216. Space 5V2'' X 1". Make an isometric section of a [ ] 
diameter rivet and part of two plates each [ ] inches thick. 







o5 ^ 


« T ' 




1 


- C^ ' 


FV 


'a 








/ 






I 


J 




- 
C 




Ap y\, 






^ 
^ 


^ 

' 




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/ 


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9 







Dimensions will be furnished by instructor. For forms of rivets 
see Figs. 133, 134, and 135. 

217. Space 5V2'' X 7". Make an isometric drawing of the 
object shown in Fig. 152. Scale 6" = 1 foot. 

218. Space 5V2" X 7". Make a cabinet projection from Fig. 
152. Scale 6'' = 1 foot. 

219. Space 5V2'' X 7'\ For scale of 6'' = 1 foot. Space 
11'' X 14" for full size. Make an isometric drawing of the bear- 
ing cap shown in Fig. 174. 

220. Space 5V2'' X 7". Make an isometric drawing of Fig. 
275. Scale 6" = 1 foot. 

221. Space 5V2" X 7". Make an oblique drawing of Fig. 
275. Scale 6" = 1 foot. 

222. Make an oblique drawing of Fig. 273. 

223. Make an oblique drawing in section of Fig. 276. 
diameter = 4V2". Width = 1 inch. 



Outside 



178 



ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 



■Knurled 



<M 









1 



-r> 



CJT" 



224. Space 5V2'' X 1" . Make an oblique drawing in section 
of Fig. 277. Scale 6" = 1 foot. 

225. Space 5V2'' X 7". Make an isometric drawing in section 
of Fig. 277. 

Shade lines may be used on most any of the problems at the 
discretion of the instructor. 

226. Where should the extra thickness of a shade line be 
allowed for? 

227. About how wide should the 
shade hues be compared with the 
fine lines on a shaded drawing. 

228. Make a drawing of Fig. 
449, half in section, and half ex- 
terior. On the exterior half repre- 
sent the knurled surface. 

229. Refer to Machinery, Power, 
American Machinist, or other tech- 
nical papers and make a freehand 
copy of a simple drawing. Give 

reference, Paper 

. . . No Page 

Consider choice 



r1 



I I 



LL 



e 






I 
I ! 



I I , 



1 



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<Vj 



I 



Date Vol. . . 

Give your criticism, favorable and unfavorable. 

of views; ease of reading and clearness; method of dimensioning; 

location of dimensions; notes and other information. 

Inking Exercises. — Practice exercises are sometimes valuable 
as a means of teaching accuracy, and for inking practice. The 
following problems are designed for such purposes. They may 
be inked with all lines of uniform weight, or with fine and heavy 
lines as shown. Sharp pencil lines and a minimum of erasing 
should be insisted upon. When inking, no erasures should be 
allowed. 

230. Exercise 1, Fig. 450. Lay out a M' square. Divide the 
side AC into 12 equal parts, using the bow spacers. Through 
each point draw horizontal lines using the T square. 

231. Exercise 2, Fig. 450. Lay out a M' square. Divide CD 
into 12 equal parts with the dividers. Draw vertical lines through 
each point using a triangle and the T square. 

232. Exercise 3, Fig. 450. Lay out a M' square. Divide AC, 
CD, and BD each into 6 equal parts. Draw BC. Draw lines 
through the points as shown, using the 45° triangle. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 179 

233. Exercise 4, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. From each 
corner draw lines making 30° and 60° with the horizontal. Use 
the 30 X 60 triangle. Stop the lines so as to form the figure 
shown. 

234. Exercise 5, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4'' square. Divide CD 
and BD into 6 equal parts. Draw lines from point C to each 




point on line BD. Draw lines from point B to each point on 
Une CD. 

235. Exercise 6, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4'' square. Divide AB 
and AC each into 12 equal parts. Draw very light horizontal and 
vertical lines through each point. Brighten up the lines so as to 
form the figure shown. 

236. Exercise 7, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square, a 3V4'' square, 
and a 2'^/ 2" square as shown in the figure. Join the middle points 
of the 4'' square. Join the middle points of the 3V4'' square. 
Erase the lines which are not required. 

237. Exercise 8, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4'' square. Draw AD 
and BC. Divide AD and BC each into 8 equal parts. Joir 



180 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING 

each point with the corners of the square. When inking be sure 
to draw toward the corners and allow each line to dry before 
drawing a second line. 

238. Exercise 9, Fig. 450. Draw horizontal and vertical center 
lines. Using their intersection as a center draw a circle with a 
diameter of 4:'\ Divide the radius into 6 equal parts. Through 
each point thus found draw circles as indicated. 

239. Exercise 10, Fig. 450. Draw horizontal and vertical 
center lines. Draw concentric circles having diameters as follows : 
4:", 3V4", 2V2'', PA'', and r\ Divide the 2V2'' circle into 8 
equal parts and using each point as a center draw small tangent 
circles having a diameter of ^/^^ as shown in the figure. 

240. Exercise 11, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4'' square. Join the 
middle points of each side by lines HF and EG. Using E, F, G, 
and H as centers, and a radius of 2", draw semicircles. Using 
same centers, and a radius of 1 V2'', draw circle arcs. Erase hues 
not required to form the figure. 

241. Exercise 12, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4'' square. Round 
the corners with a V2'' radius. Find point E, the center of the 
square. With ^ as a center, draw a circle having a radius of 
V2''. With E as, Si center draw two semicircles, having radii of 
^/i" and IV2''. Join these semicircles with small circles having 
a radius of ^/s\ Complete the figure as shown. 



INDEX 



Acme thread, 42 
Alternate sectioning, 76 
Angles, 13 

isometric, 132 
Angle, to bisect, 16 

to copy, 16 
Approximate ellipse, 21 
Arcs and straight lines, 94 
Arcs, tangent, 18, 19 
Arrow heads, 77 
Assembly drawings, 66 
A. S. M. E. sectioning, 30 
Auxiliary views, 28 
Axes, isometric, 133 

oblique, 135 



Compasses, use of, 3 

Cone, development of, 128 

Cones, intersection of, 120 

Connecting rod intersections, 121 

Constructions, 13 

Conventional representation of screw 

threads, 44 
Cross hatching, 30 
Curves, applications, 93 
Cut surfaces, representation of, 30 
Cutting plane, 30 
Cutting plane, choice of, 120 
Cylinder, development of, 126 
Cylinder head, weight of, 109 
Cylinders, intersection of, 120 



Bearings, sliding, 90 
Bessemer process, 34 
Bill of material, 12 
Blue prints, 70 
Bolts and screws, 48 
Bolts, U. S. Stardard, 48 
Butt joints, 58 
Buttress thread, 42 

Cabinet projection, 135 
Calculations of weights of materials, 

107 
Calking, 59 
Cap, nuts, 53 

screws, 53 
Castings, weights of, 106 
Cast iron, 31 

properties of, 32 
Checking drawings, 85 
Circle, involute of, 22 

to draw through three points, 18 
Circle arc, length of, 18 
Circles, 14 

isometric, 133 
Commercial gothic letters, 7 



Detail drawings, 62 

special, 63 
Development of cone, 128 

of cylinder, 126 

of prism, 124 

of pyramid, 126 

of transition piece, 128 
Developments, 123 
Diagram drawings, 68 

sketches, 104 
Dimensioning, 77 

elements of, 78 

general rules, 79 

shafting, 83 

small parts, 85 

systems, 80 

tapers, 84 
Dimension lines, 77 
Dimensions, location of, 81 

of pipe fittings, 115 

of pipe flanges, 116 

of standard pipe, 114 

purpose of, 77 
Dividers, use of, 4 
Dotted lines, 27 



181 



182 



INDEX 



Dotted sections, 163, 167 
Drawing, cabinet, 135 

isometric, 130 

oblique, 135 

picture, 130 
Drawing, isometric, 130 
Drawings, assembly, 66 

assembly working, 66 

checking, 85 

detail, 62 

diagram, 68 

erection, 66 

how to make, 65 

how to make isometric, 131 

outhne, 66 

part assembly, 66 

patent office, 139 

purpose of, 23 

shade line, 136 

show, 68 

special detail, 63 

working, 62 
Drilling for flanges, 69, 82, 95 
Drills, 87 

Elastic limit, 37 

table, 38 
Elasticity, modulus of, 37 
Ellipse, 19, 20, 21 

approximate, 21 

tangent to, 19 
Engine, parts of steam, 88 
Equilateral triangle, 17 
Erection drawings, 66 
Estimation of weights, 105 

of castings, 106 

of forgings. 111 

of loose materials, 106 
Exceptions to true projection, 69 

Factor of safety, 37 

table of, 39 
Fillets, 93 

Finish, methods of indicating, 78, 85 
Fittings, pipe, 112, 113 
Flange edges, 95 
Flanged projections, 94 



Flanges, dimensions of pipe, 116 

drilling, 69, 82, 95 
Flanges and bolting, 95 
Forgings, weights of. 111 
Forms of letters, 8 

Gears, shading of, 139 
Geometry, 13 
Glands, 92 
Gray iron, 31 

HeUx, 40 

Hexagon, to construct, 17 

Hyperbola, 22 

Imaginary cutting plane, 30 
Inking, exercises, 178 

order of, 65 
Instruments, drawing, 1 

measuring, 100 
Intersections, 117 

connecting rod, 121 

cylinders, 120 

prisms, 118 

visibiHty of, 119 
Invisible surfaces, representation of, 

27 
Involute, of circle, 22 

of triangle, 21 
Iron, cast, 31 

malleable, 34 

wrought, 33 
Isometric axes, 133 

drawing, 130 

drawing, how to make, 131 

Joints, butt, 58 
lap, 57 

Keys, 96 
Knuckle thread, 41 

Lap joints, 57 
Left-hand screw, 41 
Lettering, 7 
Letter spacing, 10 
Line, to bisect, 15 

to divide into equal parts, 16 
Line shading, 137, 139 



INDEX 



183 



Lines, arcs and straight, 94 

character of, 5 

dotted, 27 

dimension, 77 

isometric, 131 

non-isometric, 131 

of intersection, 117 

shade, 136 
Loads and stresses, 35 
Locking devices, 54 
Lower case letters, 7 

Machine construction, 87 

operations, 87 

screws, 52 
Malleable iron, 34 
Material, bill of, 12 
Materials, 31 

drawing, 1 

for sketching, 99 

piping, 112 

selection of, 35 

weights of, 105 
Measurements, instruments used for, 

100 
Methods of finish, 85 
Modulus of elasticity, 37 

table of, 38 
Multiple threads, 43 

Nasmith, James, 98 
Nuts, cap, 53 

lock, 54 

standard, 48-50 

Obhque drawing, 135 
Octagon, to construct, 18 
Open-hearth process, 34 
Osborn system, 61 

Parabola, 22 

Patent office drawings, 139 
Pen, use of ruling, 4 
Pencils, drawing, 3 
Picture drawings, 130 
Pipe, standard, 114 
Pipe conventional representation, 113 
dimensions of, 115 



Pipe fittings, 112, 113 

Pipe flanges, dimensions of, 116 

Pipe threads, 114 

Piping, 112 

Piping materials, 112 

Pistons, parts of, 89 

Plane, cutting, 30 

Plane figures, 14 

Planes, cutting, 120 

Planes of projection, 24 

Plunger barrel, weight of, 110 

Prism, development of, 124 

Prisms, intersection of, 118 

Problems, 141 

Projection, exceptions to, 69 

Projections, orthographic, 23 

rules for, 25 
Proportions and forms of letters, 8 
Proportions of U. S. Standard bolts, 

48-50 
Pyramid, development of, 126 

Questions, problems and studies, 141 

Representations, surface, 139 

Revolutions, 150 

Ribs, sections of, 75 

Rivet heads, 57 

Riveting, 57, 58 

Rivet spacing, 61 

Rolled steel shapes, 61 

Rounds, 93 

Ruling pen, use of, 4 

Scale, use of, 2 
Screw, parts of, 41 
Screws, right and left hand, 41 
Screw threads, conventional rep- 
resentation, 44 

forms of, 41 

shading of, 139 

strength of, 46 

uses of, 40 
Sections, 71 

broken, 72 

conventional, 74 



184 



INDEX 



Sections, dotted, 163, 167 

revolved, 72 

rib, 75 

symmetrical parts, 75 
Sectional views, dotted lines on, 75 

extra, 74 

location of, 72 
Set screws, 53 

holding power, 53 
Shade line drawings, 136 
Shading, line, 137 
Shafting, dimensioning of, 83 

nominal diameters of, 83 
Sharpening pencils, 3 
Show drawings, 68 
Sketches, diagram, 104 
Sketches, uses of, 98 
Sketching, 98 

general rules, 102 

materials for, 99 

procedure in, 100 

taking measurements for, 100 
Sliding bearings, 90 
Small parts, dimensioning of, 85 
Solids, geometrical, 15 
Split nut and square thread, 44 
Square thread, 42 
Standard pipe, 114 

dimensions of, 114 
Steam engine, parts of, 88 
Steel, 34 

properties of, 34 

rolled shapes, 61 
Steel plate connections, 60 
Strength of screw threads, 46 
Strength, ultimate, 37 
Stresses, axial, 35 

unit, 36 
Studs, 51 
Stuffing boxes, 92 
Surfaces, 123 
Surface shading, 139 

representations, 139 
Symmetrical parts, sections of, 75 
System of shading, 137 

Table, depth of tapped holes, 56 



Table, elastic limits, 38 

factors of safety, 39 

moduli of elasticity, 38 

ultimate strength, 38 

U. S. Standard bolts, 55 

U. S. Standard threads, 47 
Tangent arcs, 18, 19 
Tangent to an ellipse, 19 
Tap bolts, 50 

Tapers, dimensioning of, 84 
Tapped holes, depth of, 56 
Taps, 51 

Threaded holes, 45, 51 
Threads, pipe, 114 
Through bolts, 50 
Titles, 10 
Tracing, 65 

Trammel method for ellipse, 20 
Transition piece, development of, 128 
Triangle, to construct, 17 

involute of, 21 

use of, 1 
T square, use of, 1 

Ultimate strength, 37 

table of, 38 
Unit strain, 37 
Unit stresses, formula for, 36 
U. S. Standard bolts, 48 
U. S. Standard thread, 41 

table, 47 

Views, auxiliary, 28 
required, 29 

Wear and pressure, 91 
Weight of cylinder head, 109 

of plunger barrel, 110 
Weight of materials, method of cal- 
culation, 107 
Weights of castings, 106 

of forgings, 111 

of materials, 105 
White iron, 31 
Whitworth thread, 42 
Working drawings, 62 
Wrought iron, 33 

properties of, 33 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 



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NEW YORK 



SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 



OF 



|3ablication0 anti Jmportations 

OP 

SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING 

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CONSTABLE&COMPANY,Ltd. TECHNICAL PUBLISHING CO. 

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for whoii D. Van Nostrand Company are American agents. 



July, 1919 

SHORT=TITLE CATALOG 

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OF 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
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AlU Trices in thU lUt are JWErT, 
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A. S. Hardy. (Science Series No. 52.) i6mo, o 75 

Armstrong, R., and Idell, P. E. Chimneys for Furnaces and Steam Boilers. 

(Science Series No. i.) i6mo, o 75 

Arnold, E. Armature Windings of Direct-Current Dynamos. Trans, by 

F. B. DeGress 8vo, *2 00 

Asch, W., and Asch, D. The Silicates in Chemistry and Commerce. 8vo, '^6 00 
Ashe, S. W., and Keiley, J. D. Electric Railways. Theoretically and 

Practically Treated. Vol. I. Rolling Stock i2mo, *2 50 

Ashe, S. W. Electric Railways. Vol. II. Engineering Preliminaries and 

Direct Current Sub-Stations i2mo; *2 50 

Eleetricity: Experimentally and Practically Applied i2mo, *2 00 

Ashley, R, H. Chemical Calculations i2mo, *2 00 

Atkins, W. Common Battery Telephony Simplified i2mo, *i 25 

Atkinson, A. A. Electrical and Magnetic Calculations 8vo, *i 50 

Atkinson, J. J. Friction of Air in Mines. (Science Series No. 14.) . i6mo, o 75 
Atkinson, J. J., and Williams, Jr., E. H. Gases Met with in Coal Mines. 

(Science Series No. 13.) i6mo, o 75 

Atkinson, P. The Elements of Electric Lighting i2mo, i co 

The Elements of Dynamic Electricity and Magnetism i2mo, 2 oo\ 

Power Transmitted by Electricity i2mo, 2 00 

Auchincloss, W. S. Link and Valve Motions Simplified 8vo, *i 50 

Austin, E. Single Phase Electric Railways 4to, *5 00 

Austin and Cohn. Pocketbook of Radiotelegraphy (In Press.) 

Ayrton, H. The Electric Arc 8vo, 5 50 

Bacon, F. W, Treatise on the Richards Steam-Engine Indicator . . i2mo, i oo^ 

Bailey, R. D, The Brewers' Analyst Svo, *5 00 

Baker, A. L, Quaternions Svo, *i 25 

Thick-Lens Optics i2mo, *i 50 

Baker, Benj. Pressure of Earthwork. (Science Series No. 56.)...i6m0j 

Baker, G. S. Ship Form, Resistance and Screw Propulsion Svo, *4 50 

Baker, I. 0. Levelling. (Science Series No. 91.) i6mo, o 75 

Baker, M. N. Potable Water. (Science Series No. 61.) i6mo, o 75; 

Sewerage and Sewage Purification. (Science Series No. i8.).i6mo, o 75 

Baker, T. T. Telegraphic Transmission of Photographs i2mo, *i 25 

Bale, G. R. Modern Iron Foundry Practice. i2mo. 

Vol. I. Foundry Equipment, Materials Used *3 00 

Ball, J. W. Concrete Structures in Railways Svo, *2 50 

Ball, R. S, Popular Guide to the Heavens Svo, *5 00 

— — Natural Sources of Power. (Westminster Series.) Svo, *2 oa 

Ball, W. V. Law Affecting Engineers Svo, *3 5c 

Bankson, Lloyd. Slide Valve Diagrams. (Science Series No. 108.) 

i6mo, o 75 

Barham, G. B. Development of the Incandescent Electric Lamp. Svo, 2 50 

Barker, A. F. Textiles and Their Manufacture. (Westminster Series.) Svo, 2 00 

Barker, A. F., and Midgley, E. Analysis of Woven Fabrics Svo, 3 50 

Barker, A. H. Graphic Methods of Engine Design lamo, 2 00 

■ Heating and Ventilation 4to, *8 00 



4 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Barnard, J. H. The Naval Militiaman's Guide i6mo, leather i oo 

Barnard, Major J. G. Rotary Motion. (Science Series No. go.)..i6mo, o 75 

Barnes, J. B. Elements of Military Sketching i6mo. *o 75 

Barrus, G. H- Engine Tests 8vo, *4 00 

Barwise, S. The Purification of Sewage i2mo, 3 50 

Baterden, J. R. Timber, (Westminster Series.) b\o, *2 00 

Bates, E. L., and Charlesworth, F. Practical Mathematics and 
Geometry , lamo, 

Part I. Preliminary and Elementary Course *i 50 

Part II. Advanced Course *i 50 

Practical Mathematics lamo, 

Practical Geometry and Graphics lamo, 

Batey, J. The Science of Works Management i2mo, 

Steam Boilers and Combustion i2mo. 

Bayonet Training Manual i6mo, 

Beadle, C. Chapters on Papermaking. Five Volumes i2mo, each, 

Beaumont, R. Color in Woven Design 8vo, 

Finishing of Textile Fabrics 8vo, 

Standard Cloths 8vo, 

Beaumont, W. W. The Steam-Engine Indicator 8vo, 

Bechhold, H. Colloids in Biology ajnd Medicine. Trans, by J. G. 
Bullowa Svo, 

Beckwith, A. Pottery Svo, paper. 

Bedell, F., and Pierce, C. A. Direct and Alternating Current Manual. 

Svo, 

Beech, F. Dyeing of Cotton Fabrics Svo, 

Dyeing of Woolen Fabrics Svo, 

Beggs, G. E. Stresses in Railway Girders and Bridges {In Press.) 

Begtrup, J. The Slide Valve Svo, 

Bender, C. E. Continuous Bridges. (Science Series No. 26.) . . . .i6mo, 

Proportions of Pins used in Bridges. (Science Series No. 4.) 

i6mo, 

Bengough, G. D. Brass. (Metallurgy Series.) {In Press.) 

Bennett, H. G. The Manufacture of Leather Svo, 

Bernthsen, A. A Text - book of Organic Chemistry. Trans, by G. 

M'Gowan i2mo, 

Bersch, J. Manufacture of Mineral and Lake Pigments. Trans, by A. C, 

Wright Svo, 

Bertin, L. E. Marine Boilers. Trans, by L. S. Robertson Svo, 

Beveridge, J. Papermaker's Pocket Book i2mo, 

Binnie, Sir A. Rainfall Reservoirs and Water Supply Svo, 

Binns, C. F. Manual of Practical Potting Svo, 

The Potter's Craft i2mo, 

Birchmore, W. H. Interpretation of Gas Analysis i2mG, 

Blaine, R. G. The Calculus and Its Applications i2!no, 

Blake, W. H. Brewers' Vade Mecum Svo, 

Blanchard, W. M. Laboratory Exercises in General Chemistry. .i2mo, 
Bldsdale, W. C. Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Van Nostrand's 

Textbooks. ) i2nK), *2 50 

Bligh, W. G. The Practical Design of Irrigation Works Svo, 



-2 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Bloch, L. Science of Illumination. Trans, by W. C. Clinton Svo, 

Blok, A. Illumination and Artificial Lighting i2mo, 

Bliicher, H. Modern Industrial Chemistry. Trans, by J. P. Millingion. 

bvo, 

Elyth, A. W. Foods: Their Composition and Analysis 8vo, 

Poisons: Their Effects and Detection 8vo, 

Bockmann, F. Celluloid i2mo, 

Bodmer, G. R. Hydraulic Motors and Turbines i2mo, 

Boileau, J. T. Traverse Tables 8vo, 

Bonney, G. E. The Electro-platers' Handbook i2mc, 

Booth, N. Guide to the Ring-spinning Frame lamo, 

Booth, W. H. Water Softening and Treatment 8vo, 

Superheaters and Superheating and Their Control Svo, 

Eottcher, A. Cranes: Their Construction, Mecharxical Equipment and 

Working. Trans, by A. Tolhausen Ato, '' 

Bottler, M. Modern Bleaching Agents. Trans, b^'^ C. Salter. .. .lamo, 

Bottone, S. R. Magnetos for Automobilists i2mo, 

Electro-Motors, How Made and How Use i2mo, 

Boulton, S. B. Preservation of Timber. (^ Science Series No, 82).i6rao, 

Bourcart, E. Insecticides, Fungicides and Weedkillers Svo, 

Bonrgougnon, A. Physical Problems. (Science Series No. ii3.).i6mo, o 75 

Bourry, E. Treatise on Ceramic Industries. Trans, by A. B. Searle. 

Svo (In Press.) 

Bowie, A. J., Jr. A Practical Treatise on Hydraulic Mining Svo, 

Bowls, 0. Tables of Common Rocks. (Science Series No. i25.).i6mo. 

Bowser, E. A. Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry i2mo, 

Elementary Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus . i2mo, 

Elementary Treatise on Analytic Mechanics i2mo, 

— — Elementary Treatise on Hydro-mechanics i2mo, 

A Treatise on Roofs and Bridges i2mo, 

Bovcott, G. W. M. Compressed Air Work and Diving Svo, 

Bradford, G Whys and Wherefores of Navigation izmo, 

Sea Teims and Phrases i2mo, fabrikoid {In Press.) 

Bragg, E. M. Marine Engine Design i2mo, 

Design of Marine Engines and Auxiliaries Svo, 

Brainard, F. R. The Sextant. (Science Series No. loi.) i6mo, 

Brassey's Naval Annual for 1915. War Edition Svo, 4 00 

Briggs, R., and Wolff, A. R. Steam-Heating, (Science Series No. 

68.) i6mo, o 75 

Bright, C. The Life Story of Sir Charles Tilso.i Bright Svo, *4 50 

Telegraphy, Aeronautics and War. ... Svo, 6 00 

Brislee, T. J. Introduction to the Study of Fuel. (Outlines of Indus- 
trial Chemistry.) ; Svo, *3 00 

Broadfoot, S. K. Motors: Secondary Batteries. (Insfrallation Manuals 

Series. ) i2mo, *o 75 

Broughton, H. H. Electric Cranes and Hoists 

Brown, G. Healthy Foundations. (Science Series No. .80,) . . . . i6mo, o 75 

Brown, H. Irrigation Svo, *5 00 

Brown, H. Rubber Svo, *2 00 

W. A. Portland Cement Industry '. Svo, 3 00 

Brown, Wm. N. Dipping, Burnishing, Lacquering and Bronzing 

Brass Ware i2mo, *i 50 

Handbook on Japanning i2mo, *2 00 



5 


00 





75 


I 


75 


2 


25 


3 


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2 


50 


*2 


25 


''4 


25 


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*2 


00 


*3 


00 



6 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Brown, Wm. N. The Art of Enamelling on Metal lamo, *2 oo 

House Decorating and Painting i2mo, *2 oo 

History of Decorative Art i2mo *o 50 

Workshop Wrinkles 8vo, * i 00 

Browne, C. L. Fitting and Erecting of Engines 8vo, *i 50 

Browne, R. E. Water Meters. (Science Series No. 81) i6mo, o 75 

Bruce, E. M. Detection of Common Food Adulterants i2mo, i 25 

Brunner, R. Manufacture of Lubricants, Shoe Polishes and Leather 

Dressings. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *3 50 

Buel, R. H. Safety Valves. (Science Series No. 21.) i6mo, o 75 

Bunkley, J. W. Military and Naval Recognition Book i6mo, i 00 

Burley, G. W. Lathes. Their Construction and Operation i2mo, 2 00 

Machine and Fitting Shop Practice i2mo, 2 00 

Testing of Machine Tools 1 2mo, 2 00 

Burnside, W. Bridge Foundations i2mo, *2 00 

Burstall, F. W. Energy Diagram for Gas. With Text 8vo, i 50 

• Diagram. Sold separately *i 00 

Burt, W. A. Key to the Solar Compass i6mo, leather, 250 

Buskett, E. W. Fire Assaying i2mo, *i 25 

Butler, H. J Motor Bodies and Chassis 8vo, *3 00 

Byers, H, G., and Knight, H. G. Notes on Qualitative Analysis 8vo, *i 50 

Cain, W. Brief Course ir» the Calculus i2mo, *i 75 

Elastic Arches. (Science Series No. 48.) i6mo, o 75 

Maximum Stresses. (Science Series No. 38.) i6mo, o 75 

— . — Practical Designing Retaining of Walls. (Science Series No. 3.) 

i6mo, o 75 
—— Theory of Steel-concrete Arches and of Vaulted Structures. 

(Science Series No. 42.) i6mo, o 75 

. Theory of Voussoir Arches. (Science Series No. 12.) i6mo, o 75 

■ Symbolic Algebra. (Science Series No. 73.) i6mo, o 75 

Calvert, O. T. The Manufacture of Sulphate of Ammonia and 

Crude Ammonia i2mo, 4 00 

Carey, A. E., and Oliver, F. W. Tidal Lands 8vo, 5 00 

Carpenter, F.D. Geographical Surveying. (Science Series No. 37.). i6mo, 

Carpenter, R. C, and Diederichs,H. Internal Combustion Engines. . 8vo, *5 00 

Carter, H. A. Ramie (Rhea), China Grass i2mo, *3 00 

Carter, H. R. Modern Flax, Hemp, and Jute Spinning 8vo, '^'s 50 

Bleaching, Dyeing and Finishing of Fabrics 8vo, *i 25 

Cary, E. R. Solution of Railroad Problems with the Slide Rule. . i6mo, *i 00 

easier, M. D. Simplified Reinforced Concrete Mathematics i2mo, -i 00 

Cathcart, W. L. Machine Design. Part L Fastenings Svo, *3 00 

Cathcart, W. L., and Chaffee, J. L Elements of Graphic Statics. . Svo, *3 00 

■ Short Course in Graphics i2mo, i 50 

Caven, R. M., and Lander, G. D. Systematiclnorganic Chemistry. i2mo, *2 00 

Chalkley, A. P. Diesel Engines Svo, *4 00 

Chalmers. T. W. The Production and Treatment of Vegetable Oils, 

4t0, 7 50 

Chambers' Mathematical Tables Svo, i 75 

Chambers, G. F. Astronomy i6mo, *i 50 

Chappel, E. Five Figure Mathematical Tables Svo, '"2 or> 

Charnock, Mechanical Technology 3vo, *3 00 

Charpentier, P. Timber Svo, 6 00 






75 
50 
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D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Chatley, H. Principles and Designs of Aeroplanes. (Science Series 

No. 126.) i6rao, 

How to Use Water Power i2mo, 

Gyrostatic Balancing 8vo, 

Child, C. D. Electric Arc 8vo, 

Christian, M. Disinfection and Disinfectants. Trans, by Chas, 

Salter c.::> . ; v. .-?* . . i2mo, 

Christie, W. W. Boiler-waters, Scale, Corrosion, Ft -ning .... . . . . 8vo, 

■ Chimney Design and Theory 8vo, 

Furnace Draft. [Science Series No. 123. ) .... i6mo, 

Water: Its Purification and Use in the Industries. . 8vo, 

Church's Laboratory Guide. Rewritten by Edward Kinc.,. 8vo, 

Clapham, J. H. Woolen aad Worsted Industries Svo, 

Clapperton, G. Practical Papermaking Svo, 

Clark, A. G. Motor Car Engineering. 

Vol. I. Construction *4 

Vol. II. Design Svo, 

Clark, C. H. Marine Gas Engines. New Edition 

Clark, J. M. New System of Laying Out Railway Turnouts i2mo, i 00 

Clarke, J. W., and Scott, W. Plumbing Practice. 

Vol. I. Lead Working and Plumbers' Materials Svo, *4 00 

Vol. II. Sanitary Plumbing and Fittings {In Press.) 

Vol. III. Practical Lead Working on Roofs {In Press.) 

Clarkson, R. P. Elementary Electrical Engineering {In Press.) 

Clausen-Thue, W. A B C Universal Commercial Telegraphic Code. 

Sixth Edition {In Press.) 

Clerk, D., and Idell, F. E. Theory of the Gas Engine. (Science Series 

No. 62.) i5mo, 75 

Clevenger, S. R. Treatise on the Method of Government Surveying. 

i6mo, morocco, 
Clouth, F. Rubber, Gutta-Percha, and Balata 8vo, 

Cochran, J. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Specifications Svo, 

Treatise on Cement Specifications Svo, 

Cocking, W. C. Calculations for Steel-Frame Structures i2mo, 

Cof&n, J. H. C. Navigation and Nautical Astronomy i2mo, 

Colburn, Z., and Thurston, R. H. Steam Boiler Explosions. (Science 

Series No. 2.) i6mo, 

Cole, R. S. Treatise on Photographic Optics i2mo, 

Coles-Finch, W. Water, Its Origin and Use Svo, 

Collins, C. D. Drafting Room Methods, Standards and Forms Svo, 

Collins, J. E. Useful Alloys and Memoranda for Goldsmiths, Jewelers. 

i6mo, 

Collins, S. Hoare. Plant Products and Chemical Fertilizers Svo, 

Collis, A. G. High and Low Tension Switch-Gear Design Svo, 

Switchgear. (Installation Manuals Series.) lamo, 

Coiver, E. D. S. High Explosives Svo, 

Comstock, D. F., and Troland, L." T. The Nature of Electricity and 

Matter Svo, 

Coombs, H. A. Gear Teeth. (Science Series No. 120.) i6mo. 

Cooper, W. R. Primary Batteries Svo, 

Copperthwaite, W. C. Tunnel Shields 4to, 

Corfield, W. H. Dwelling Houses. (Science Series No. 5o.)....i6mo, 
, Water and Water-Supply. (Science Series No. 17.) i6mo. 



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8 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Cornwall, H. B. Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis 8vo, 

Cowee, G. A. Practical Safety Methods and Devices 8vOj 

Cowell, W. B. Pure Air, Ozone, and Water lamo, 

Craig, J. W., and Woodward, W, P. Questions and Answers About 

Electrical Apparatus lamo, leather, 

Craig, T. Motion of a Solid in a Fuel. (Science Series No. 49.) . i6mo, 

> Wave and Vortex Motion. (Science Series No. 43.) i6mo. 

Cramp, W. Continuous Current Machine Design 8vo, 

Creedy, F. Single Phase Commutator Motors 8vo, 

Crehore, A. C. Mystery of Matter and Energy 8vo, 

Crocker, F. B. Electric Lighting. Two Volumes. Svo. 

Vol. I. The Generating Plant 300 

Vol. II. Distributing Systems and Lamps 

Crocker, F. B., and Arendt, M. Electric Motors Svo, *2 50 

CrocKer, F. B., and Wheeler, S. S. The Management of Electrical Ma- 
chinery i2mo, *i 00 

Crosby, E. U., Fiske, H. A., and Forster, H. W. Handbook of Fire 

Protection i amo, 4 00 

Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Sindall, R. W. Wood Pulp and Its Applica- 
tions. (Westminster Series.) Svo, 

Crosskey, L. R. Elementary Perspective Svo, 

Crosskey, L. R., and Thaw, J. Advanced Perspective Svo, 

Culley, J. L. Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. 87.) i6mo, 

Gushing, H. C, Jr., and Harrison, N. Central Station Management. .. 

Dadourian, H. M. Analytical Mechanics i2mo, 

Danby, A. Natural Rock Asphalts and Bitimiens Svo, 

Davenport, C. The Book. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 

Davey, N. The Gas Turbine Svo, 

Davies, F. H. Electric Power and Traction Svo, 

Foundations and Machinery Fixing. (Installation Manual Series.) 

i6mo, 

Deerr, N. Sugar Cane Svo, 

Deite, C. Manual of Soapmaking. Trans, by S. T. King 4to. 

De la Coux, H. The Industrial Uses of Water. Trans, by A. Morris. Svo, 

Del Mar, W. A. Electric Power Conductors Svo, 

Denny, G. A. Deep-level Mines of the Rand 4to, 

Diamond Drilling for Gold 

De Roos, J. D. C. Linkages. (Science Series No. 47.) i6mo, 

Derr, W. L. Block Signal Operation Oblong i2mo, 

Maintenance-of-Way Engineering {In Preparation.) 

Desaint, A. Three Hundred Shades and How to Mix Them Svo, 

De Varona, A. Sew^r Gases. (Science Series No. 55. ) i6mo, 

Devey, R. G. Mill and Factory Wiring. (Installation Manuals Series.) 

i2mo, 

Dibdin, W. J. Purification of Sewage and Water Svo, 

Dichmann, Carl. Basic Open-Hearth Steel Process i2mo, 

Dieterich, K. Analysis of Resins, Balsams, and Gum Resins. .. .Svo, 

Dilworth, E. C. Steel Railway Bridges 4to. 

Dinger, Lieut. H. C. Care and Operation of Naval Machinery. .. i2mo, 
Dixon, D. B. Machinist's and Steam Engineer's Practical Calculator. 

i6mo, morocco, i 25 



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D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 9 

Dommett, W. E Motor Car Mechanism lamo, *2 00 

Dorr, B. F. The Surveyor's Guide and Pocket Table-book. 

i6mo, morocco, 2 00 
rJiaper, C. H. Elementary Text-book of Light, Heat and Sound . . i2mo, i 00 

Heat and the Principles of Thermo-dynamics i2mo, *2 00 

Draper, E. G. Navigating the Ship i2mo, i 50 

Dron, R. W. Mining Formulas i2mo, i 00 

Dubbel, H. High Power Gas Engines 8vo, *s 00 

Dumesny, P., and Noyer, J. Wood Products, Distillates, and Extracts. 

8vo, "^5 00 
Duncan, W. G., and Penman, D. The Electrical Equipment of Collieries. 

8vo, 
Dunkley, W. G. Design of Machine Elements. Two volumes. .8vo,each, 
Dunstan, A. E., and Thole, F. B. T. Textbook of Practical Chemistry. 

i2mo, 

Durham, H. W. Saws 8vo 

Duthie, A. L. Decorative Glass Processes. (Westminster Series.) . 8vo, 

Dwight, H. B. Transmission Line Formulas 8vo, 

Dyke, A. L. Dyke's Automobile and Gasoline Engine Encyclopedia . 8vo, 

Dyson, S. S. Practical Testing of Raw Materials 8vo, 

Dyson, S. S., and Clarkson, S. S. Chemical Woiks 8vo, 

Eccles, W. H. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony i2mo, *8 80 

Eck, J. Light, Radiation and Illumination. Trans, by Paul Hogner, 

8vo, 

Eddy, H. T. Maximum Stresses under Concentrated Loads 8vo, 

Eddy, L. C. Laboratory Manual of Alternating Currents i2mo. 

Edelman, P. Inventions and Patents i2mo. 

Edgcumbe, K. Indi^strial Electrical Measuring Instruments 8vo. 

Edler, R. Switches and Switchg-ear. Trans, by Ph. Laubach. . .8vo 

Eissler, M. The Metallurgy of Gold 8vo. 

The Metallurgy of Silver 8vo. 

The Metallurgy of Argentiferous Load 8vo. 

A Handbook on Modern Explosives 8vo, 

EMn, T. C. Water Pipe and Sewage Discharge Diagrams folio, 

Electric Light Carbons, Manufacture of 8vo, 

Eliot, C. W., and Storer, F. H. Compendious Manual of Qualitative 

Chemical Analysis i2mo, 

Ellis, C. Hydrogenation of Oils. 8vo, 

Ultraviolet Light, Its Applications in Chemical Arts i2mo, 

(In Press) 

Ellis, G. Modern Technical Drawing 8vo, 

Eflnis, Wm. D. Linseed Oil and Other Seed Oils 8vo, 

Applied Thermodynamics 8vo, 

Flying Machines To-day i2mo, 

Vapors for Heat Engines i2mo, 

Ermen, W. F. A. Materials Used in Sizing 8vo, 

Erwin, M. The Universe and the Atom i2mo, 

Evans, C. A. Macadamized Roads (In Press.) 

Ewing, A. J. Magnetic Induction in Iron 8vo, 

Fairchild, J. F. Granhical Comnass Conversion Chart and Tables... o 50 

Fairie. J. Notes on Lead Ores i2mo, *o 50 

Notes OH Pottery Clays i2mo, *2 00 



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10 D. V- N NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Fairley, W., and Andre, Geo. J. Ventilation of Coal Mines. (Science 

Series No. 58.) i6mo, o 75 

Fairweather, W. C. Foreign and Colonial Patent Laws 8vo, *3 00 

Fanning, J. T. Hydraulic and Water-supply Engineering 8vo, *5 00 

Fay, I. W. The Coal-tar Dyes 8vo, *4 00 

Fembach, R. L. Glue and Gelatine 8vo, *3 00 

Findlay, A. The Treasures of Coal Tar lamo, 2 00 

Firth, J. B. Practical Physical Chemistry lamo, i 25 

Fischer, E. The Preparation of Organic Compounds. Trans, by R. V. 

Stanford i2mo, *t 50 

Fish, J. C. L. Lettering of Working Drawings Oblong Svo, i 00 

Fisher, H. K. C, and Darby, W. C. Submarine Cable Testing . . . .8vo, *3 50 
Fleischmann, W. The Book of the Dairy. Trans, by C. M. Aikman. 

Svo, 4 50 
Fleming, J. A, The Alternate-current Transformer. Two Volumes. 8vo. 

Vol. I. The Induction of Electric Currents *6 50 

Vol, II. The Utilization of Induced Currents 6 50 

Propagation of Electric Currents Svo, '■'^ 00 

A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room. Two 

Volumes 8vo, each, *6 50 

Fleury, P. Preparation and Uses of White Zinc Paints Svo, *2 75 

Flynn, P. J. Flow of Water. (Science Series No. S4.) i2mo, o 75 

Hydraulic Tables. (Science Series No. 66.) i6mo, o 75 

Forgie, J. Shield Tunneling Svo. {In Press.) 

Foster, H. A. Electrical Engineers' Pocket-book. {Seventh Edition.) 

i2mo, leather, 5 00 

Engineering Valuation of Public Utilities and Factories 8vo, *$ 00 

Handbook of Electrical Cost Data 8vo {In Press.) 

Fowle, F. F. Overhead^Transmission Line Crossings i2mo, *i 50 

The Solution of Alternating Current Problems 8vo {I?i Press.) 

Fox, W. G, Transition Curves. (Science Series No. no.) . . . . i6mo, o 75 
Fox, W., and Thomas, C. W. Practical Course in Mechanical Draw- 
ing i2mo, I 25 

Foye, J. C. Chemical Problems. (Science Series No. 69.) i6mo, o 75 

Handbook of Mineralogy. (Science Series No. 86.) i6mo, o 75 

Francis, J. B. Lowell Hydraulic Experiments 4to, 15 00 

Franzen, H. Exercises in Gas Analysis i2mo, *i 00 

Freudemacher, P. W. Electrical Mining Installations. (Installation 

Manuals Series.) i2mo, *i 00 

Friend, J. N. The Chemistry of Linseed Oil lamo, i 00 

Frith, J. Alternating Current Design Svo, *2 50 

Fritsch, J. Manufacture of Chemical Manures. Trans, by D. Grant. 

Svo, *5 o9 

Frye, A. I. Civil Engineers' Pocket-book i2mo, leather, *5 00 

Fuller, G. W. Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio River. 

4to, *io 00 
Fumell, J. Paints, Colors, Oils, and Varnishes 8vo. 

Gairdner, Jo W. I. Earthwork Svo {In Press.) 

Gant, L. W. Elements of Electric Traction Svo, *2 50 



D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG ii 

Garcia, A. J. R. V. Spanish-English Railway Terms 8vo, *4 50 

Gardner, H. A. Paint Researches, and Their Practical Applications, 

8vo, *5 00 

Garforth, W. E. Rules for Recovering Coal Mines after Explosions and 

Fires i2mo, leather, i 50 

Garrard, C. C. Electric Switch and Controlling Gear 8vo, *6 00 

Gaudard, J. Foundations. (Science Series No. 34.) i6mo, o 75 

Gear, H. B., and "Williams, P. F. Electric Central Station Distribution 

Systems 8vo, *3 50 

Geerligs, H. C, P. Cane Sugar and Its Manufacture Svo, *6 00 

— — Chemical Control m Cane Sugar Factories 4to, 5 00 

Geikie, J. Structural and Field Geology 8vo, *4 00 

Mountains. Their Growth, Origin and Decay 8vo, *4 00 

The Antiquity of Man in Europe Svo, *3 00 

Georgi, F., and Schubert, A. Sheet Metal Working. Trans, by C. 

Salter Svo, 3 50 

Gerhard, W. P. Sanitation, Watersupply and Sewage Disposal of Country 

Houses i2mo, *2 00 

Gas Lighting. (Science Series No. m.) i6mo, 075 

Household Wastes. (Science Series No. 97.) i6mo, 075 

House Drainage. (Science Series No. 63.) i6mo, o 75 

Sanitary Drainage of Buildings. (Science Series No. 93.)..i6mo, o 75 

Gerhardi, C. W. H. Electricity Meters 8vo, *7 20 

Geschwind, L. Manufacture of Alum and Sulphates. Trans, by C. 

Salter Svo, *5 00 

Gibbings, A. H. Oil Fuel Equipment for Locomotives 8vo, *2 50 

Gibbs, We E. Lighting by Acetylene i2mo, *i 50 

Gibson, A. H. Hydraulics and Its Application Svo, *5 00 

Water Hammer in Hydraulic Pipe Lines i2mo, *2 00 

Gibson, A. H., and Ritchie, E. G. Circular Arc Bow Girder 4to, *3 50 

Gilbreth, Fc B. Motion Study i2mo, *2 00 

— — Primer of Scientific Management i2mo, *i 00 

Gillmore, Gen. Q. A. Roads, Streets, and Pavements i2mo, i 25 

Godfrey, E. Tables for Structural Engineers i6mo, leather, *2 50 

Golding, H. A. The Theta-Phi Diagram i2mo, *2 00 

Goldschmidt, R. Alternating Current Commutator Motor Svo, *3 00 

Goodchild, W Precious Stones. (Westminster Series.) Svo, *2 09 

Goodell, J. M. The Location, Construction and Maintenance of 

Roads Svo, 1 50 

Goodeve, T. M. Textbook on the Steam-engine i2mo, 2 00 

Gore, G. Electrolytic Separation of Metals _ Svo, *3 50 

Gould, E S. Arithmetic of the Steam-engine i2mo i 00 

Calculus. (Science Series No. 112.) i6mo, 075 

High Masonry Dams. (Science Series No. 22.) i6mo, 075 

Gould, E. S. Practical Hydrostatics and Hydrostatic Formulas. (Science 

Series No. 1x7.) i6rao, o 75 



12 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Gratacap, L. P. A Popular Guide to Minerals 8vo, 

Gray, J. Electrical Influence Machines i2mo, 

Marine Boirler Design i2mo, 

Greenhill, G. Dynamics of Mechanical Flight 8vo, 

Gregorius, R. Mineral Waxes. Trans, by C. Salter izmo, 

Grierson, R. Some Modern Methods of Ventilation 8vo, 

Griffiths, A. B. A Treatise on Manures i2mo, 

Dental Metallurgy , : . . .8vo, 

Gross, E. Hops 8vo, 

Grossman, J. Ammonia and Its Compounds i2mo, 

Groth, L. A. Welding and Cutting Metals by Gases or Electricity. 

(Westminster Series) 8vo, 

Grover, F, Modern Gas and Oil Engines 8vo, 

Gruner, A. Power-loom Weaving 8vo, 

Grunsky, C. E. Topographic Stadia Surveying i6m0, 

Giildner, Hugo. Internal Combustion Engines. Trans, by H. Diederichs. 

4to, 

Gunther, C. 0. Integration 8vo, 

Gurden, R. L. Traverse Tables folio, half morocco, 

Guy, A. E. Experiments on the Flexure of Beams 8vo, 

Haenig, A. Emery and Emery Industry 8vo, 

Hainbach, R. Pottery Decoration. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, 

Hale, W. J. Calculations of General Chemistry i2mo, 

Hall, C. H. Chemistry of Paints and Paint Vehicles i2mo. 

Hall, G. L. Elementary Theory of Alternate Current Working. .. .Svo, 
Hall, R. H. Governors and Govesoing Mechanism i2mo, 

Hall, W. S. Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus Svo, 

Descriptive Geometry Svo volume and a 4to atlas, 

HaUer, Go F., and Cunningham, E. T. The Tesla Coil i2mo, 

Halsey, F. A. Slide Valve Gears i2mo, 

^The Use of the Slide Rules. (Science Series No. 114.) i6mo, 

Worm and Spiral Gearing. (Science Series No. 116.) i6mo, 

Hancock, H. Textbook of Mechanics and Hydrostatics Svo, 

Hancock, W. C. Refractory Materials. (Metallurgy Series.) {In Press.) 

Hardy, E. Elementary Principles of Graphic Statics i2mo, *i 50 

Haring, H. Engineering Law. 

Vol. I. Law of Contract Svo, *4 00 

Harper, J. H. Hydraulic Tables on the Flow of Water i6mo, *2 00 

Harris, S. M. Practical Topographical Surveying {In Press.) 

Harrison, W. B. The Mechanics' Tool-book i2mo, i 50 

Hart, J. W. External Plumbing Work ! . . . .8vo, "^s 50 

Hints to Plumbers on Joint Wiping Svo, *i 50 

^Principks of Hot Water Supply Svo, *3 50 

Sanitary Plumbing and Drainmge. .... Svo, *3 50 

Haskins, C. H. The Galvanometer and Its Uses i6mo, i 50 

Hatt, J. A. H. The Colorist square i2mo, *i 50 

Hausbrand, E. Drying by Means of Air and Steam. Trans, by A. C. 

Wright i2mo, *2 50 

Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparatus. Trans, by A. C. 

Wrijyht Svo, *6 00 



*2 


00 


2 


00 


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25 


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50 


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00 


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00 


3 


00 


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GO 


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25 


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CO 


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50 


2 


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GO 


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25 


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50 


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25 


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50 


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50 


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75 





75 


I 


50 



D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 13 

HaTismaiin, E. Telegraph Engineering 8vo, *3 00 

Hau&ner, A. Manufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats. Trans, 
by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, 

Hawkesworth, J. Graphical Handbook for Reinforced Concrete Design. 

4to, 

Hay, A. Contimious Current Engineering 8vo, 

Hayes, H. V. Public Utilities, Their Cost New and Depreciation. . .Svo, 

— — Public Utilities, Their Fair Present Value and Return Svo, 

Heath, F. H. Chemistry of Photography Svo. (In Press.) 

Heather, H. J. S. Electrical Engineering Svo, 

Heaviside, O. Electromagnetic Theory. Vols. I and II. . . .8vo, each, 

Vol. Ill 8vo, 

Heck, R. C. H. The Steam Engine and Turbine Svo, 

Steam-Engine and Other Steam Motors. Two Volmnes. 

Vol. I. Thermodynamics and the Mechanics Svo, 

VoL II. Form, Construction, and Working Svo, 

Notes on Elementary Kinematics Svo, boards, 

Graphics of Machine Forces Svo, boards, 

Heermann, P. Dyers' Materials. Trans, by .A C. Wright i2mo, 

Hellot, Macquer and D' Apligny. Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton. Svo, 

Henrici, 0. Skeleton Structures Svo, 

Hering, C, and Getman, F. H. Standard Tables of Electro-Chemical 
Equivalents i2mo, 

Hering, D. W- Essentials of Physics for College Students Svo, 

Hering-Shaw, A. Domestic Sanitation and Plumbing. Two Vols.. Svo, 

Hering-Shaw, A. Elementary Science Svo, 

Eerington, C. F. Powdered Coal as Fuel Svo, 

Herrmann, G. The Graphical Statics of Mechanism. Trans, by A. P. 

Smith i2mo, 2 00 

Herzfeld, J. Testing of Yarns and Textile Fabrics Svo. 

{New Edition in Preparation.) 
Hildebrandt, A. Airships, Past and Present Svo, 

Eiidenbrand, B. W. Cable-Making. (Science Series No. 32). .. .i5mo, o 75 

Hilditch, T. P. A Concise History of Chemistry i2mo, *i 50 

Hill, J. W. The Purification of Public Water Supplies. New Edition. 

(In Press.) 
Interpretation of Water Analysis (In Press.) 

Hill, M. J. M. The Theory of Proportion Svo, *2 50 

Eillhouse, P. A. Ship Stability and Trim Svo, 4 50 

Hiroi, I. Plate Girder Construction. (Science Series No. 95.)..T6mc, o 75 

Statically-Indeterminate Stresses i2mo, *2 00 

Hirshfeld, C. F. Engineering Thermodynamics. (Science Series No. 45.) 

i6mo, 
Hoar, A. The Submarine Torpedo Boat i2mo, 

Hobart, H. M. Heavy Electrical Engineering Svo, 

Design of Static Transformers i2mo, 

Electricity , Svo, 

Electric Trains Svo, 

■ Electric Propulsion of Ships Svo, 



*3 


50 


*2 


50 


"2 


50 


*2 


00 


*2 


00 


*3 


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*6 


00 


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00 


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50 


*3 


50 


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00 


*i 


00 


*i 


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75 


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00 


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00 


3 


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00 


*4 


50 


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00 


*2 


00 


*2 


50 


^2 


50 



14 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Hobart, J. F. Hard Soldering, Soft Soldering and Brazing i2mo, *i oo 

Hobbs, W. R. P. The Arithmetic of Electrical Measurements. .. .i2mo, 

Hoft, J. N. Paint and Varnish Facts and Formulas lamo, 

Halt, W, The Distributioa of Gas 8vo, 

Holley, A. L. Railway Practice folio, 

Hopkins, N. M. Model Engines and Small Boats i2mo, 

Hopkinson, J., Shoolbred, J. N., and Day, R. E. Dynamic Electricity. 

(Science Series No. 71.) iGmo, 

Horner, J. Practical Ironfounding 8vo, 

Gear Cutting, in Theory and Practice 8vo, 

Horniman, Roy. How to Make the Railways Pay For the War. . . .8vo, 

Houghton, C. E. The Elements of Mechanics of Materials lamo, 

Houstoun, R. A. Studies in Light Production i2mo, 

Hovenden, F. Practical Mathematics for Young Engineers i2mo, 

Howe, G. Mathematics for the Practical Man i2mo, 

Howorth, J. Repairing and Riveting Glass, China and Earthenware. 

8vo, paper, 

Hoyt, W. E. Chemistry by Experimentation 8vo, 

Hubbard, E. The Utilization of Wood-waste 8vo, 

Hiibner, J. Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable and Fibrous Materials. 

(Outlines of Industrial Chemistry.) 8vo, *5 00 

Hudson, 0. F. Iron and Steel. (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry. ).8vo, *2 00 
Humphrey, J. C. W. Metallography of Strain. (Metallurgy Series.) 

{In Press.) 
Humphreys, A. C. The Business Features of Engineering Practice . .8vo, *i 25 

Hunter, A. Bridge Work 8vo. ( In Press.) 

Hurst, G. H. Handbook of the Theory of Color 8vo, *3 50 

Dictionary of Chemicals and Raw Products 8vo, *5 00 

Lubricating Oils, Fats and Greases 8vo, *5 00 

Soaps 8vo, *6 o» 






75 


*I 


50 


*8 


50 


6 


00 


I 


25 





75 


*2 


00 


*3 


00 


3 


oo 


*2 


00 


2 


00 


*I 


50 


=^1 


25 


*o 


50 


*o 


70 


*2 


50 



Hurst, G. H., and Simmons, W. H. Textile Soaps and Oils 8vo, 3 50 

Hurst, H. E., and Lattey, R. T. Text-book of Physics 8vo, *3 00 

Also published in three parts. 

Part I. Dynamics and Heat *i 25 

Part II. Sound and Light *i 25 

Part III. Magnetism and Electricity *i 50 

Hutchinson, R. W., Jr. Long Distance Electric Power Transmission. 

i2mo, *3 00 
Hutchinson, R. W., Jr., and Thomas, W. A. Electricity in Mining. i2mt, 

(In Press.) 
Hutchinson, W. B. Patents and How to Make Money Out of Them. 

i2mo, I 00 

Hutton, W. S. The Works' Manager's Handbook 8vo, 6 00 

Hyde, E. W. Skew Arches. (Science Series No. 15.) i6mo, o 75 

Hyde, F. S. Solvents, Oils, Gums, Waxes 8vo, *2 00 

Induction Coils. (Science Series No. 53.) i6mo, 075 

Ingham, A. E. Gearing. A practical treatise 8vo, *2 50 

Ingle, H. Manual of Agricultural Chemistry 8vo (In Press.) 



D VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 15 

Inness, C. H. Problems in Machine Design lamo, *3 00 

Air Compressors and Blowing Engines i2mo, 

Centrifugal Pumps i2mo, *3 00 

The Fan i2mo, *4 00 

Jacob, A., and Gould, E. S. On the Designing and Construction of 

Storage Reservoirs. (Science Series No. 6.) i6rao, o 75 

Jannettaz, E. Guide to the Determination of Rocks. Trans, by G. W. 

Plympton i2mo, i 50 

Jehl, F. Manufacture of Carbons 8vo, *4 00 

Jennings, A. S. Commercial Paints and Painting. (Westminster Series.) 

8vo, *4 oo 
Jennison, F. H. The Manufacture of Lake Pigments. .8vo {In Press.) 

Jepson, G. Cams and the Principles of their Construction 8vo, *i 50 

Mechanical Drawing 8vo {In Preparation.) 

Jervis-Smith, F. J. Dynamometers 8vo, *3 50 

Jockin, W. Arithmetic of the Gold and Silversmith i2mo, *i 00 

Johnson, J. H. Arc Lamps and Accessory Apparatus. (Installation 

Manuals Series.) i2mo, *o 75 

Johnson, T. M. Ship Wiring and Fitting. (^Installation Manuals Series.) 

i2mo, *o 75 

Johnson, W. McA. The Metallurgy of Nickel {In Preparation.) 

Johnston, J. F. W., and Cameron, C. Elements of Agricultural Chemistry 

and Geology i2mo, 2 60 

Joly, J. Radioactivity and Geology i2mo, -3 00 

Jones, H. C. Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity i2mo, *2 00 

Nature of Solution Svo, *3 50 

New Era in Chemistry izmo, *2 00 

Jones, J. H. Tinplate Industry Svo, *3 00 

Jones, M. W. Testing Raw Materials Used in Paint i2mo, *2 50 

Jordan, L. C. Practical Railway Spiral i2mo, leather, *i 50 

Joynson, F. H. Designing and Construction of Machine Gearing . .8vo, 2 00 

Jiiptner, H. F. V. Siderclogy: The Science of Iron Svo, *5 00 

Kapp, G. Alternate Ciinmt Machinery. (Science Series No. 96.) 

i6mo, o 75 

Kapper, F. Overhead Transmission Lines 4to, ''4 00 

Keim, A. W. Prevention of Dampness in Buildings Svo, *2 50 

KeHer, S. S. Mathematics for Engineering Students. i2mo, half leather. 

and Knox, W. E. Analytical Geometry and Calculus *2 00 

Kelsey, W. R. Continuous-current Dyaamos and Motors 8vo, *2 50 

Kemble, W. T., and Underbill, C. R. The Periodic Law and the Hydrogen 

Spectrum 8vo, paper, *o 50 

Kemp, J. F. Handbook of Rocks Svo, *i 50 

Kennedy, A. B. W., and Thurston, R. H. Kinematics of Machinery. 

( Science Series No. 54. » iSmo, o 75 

Kennedy, A. B. W., Unwin, W. C, and Idell, F. E. Compressed Air. 

(Science Series No. n6 ) i6mo, o 75 



l6 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Kennedy, R. Etectrical Installations. Five Volumes 4to, 15 oo 

Single Volumes each, 3 50 

Flying Machines ; Practice and Design i2mo, *2 50 

Principles of Aeroplane Construction 8vo, *2 00 

Kennelly, A. E. Electro-dynamic Machinery 8vo, i 50 

Kent, W. Strenth of Materials. (Science Series No. 41.) i6mo, o 75 

Kershaw, J. B. C. Fuel, Water and Gas Analysis 8vo, *2 50 

Electrometallurgy. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 

The Electric Furnace in Iron and Steel Production i2mo, 

Electro-Thermal Methods of Iron and Steel Production. .. .8vo, *3 00 

Kinzbrunner, C. Alternate Current Windings Svo, *i 50 

Continuous Current Armatures Svo, *i 50 

Testing of Alternating Current Machines Svo, *2 00 

Kinzer, H,, and Walter, K. Theory and Practice of Damask Weaving, 

Svo, 4 00 
Kirkaldy, A.. W., and Evans, A. D. History and Economics of 

Transport Svo, *3 00 

Kirkaldy, W. G. David Kirkaldy's System of Mechanical Testing. .4to, 10 00 

Kirkbride, J. Engraving for Illustration Svo, *i 00 

Barkwood, J. P. Filtration of River Waters 4to, 7 50 

Kirschke, A. Gas and Oil Engines i2mo, *i 50 

Klein, J. F Design of a High-speed Steam-engine Svo, *5 00 

Physical Significance of Entropy Svo, *i 50 

Klingenberg, G. Large Electric Power Stations 4to, *5 00 

Knight, R.-Adm. A. M. Modern Seamanship Svo, *6 50 

Pocket Edition i2mo, f abrikoid, 3 00 

Knott, C. G., and Mackay, J. S. Practical Mathematics Svo, 2 50 

Knox, G. D, Spirit of the Soil i2mo, *i 25 

Knox, J. Physico-Chemical Calculations i2mo, *i 25 

Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen. (Chemical Monographs.) . i2mo, *i 00 

Koester, F. Steam-Electric Power Plants , 4to, *5 00 

Hydroelectric Developments and Engineering 4to, *5 00 

Keller, T. The Utilization of Waste Products Svo, *5 00 

Cosmetics Svo, *2 50 

Koppe, S. W. Glycerine i2mo, *3 50 

Kozmin, P. A, Flour Milling. Trans, by M. Falkner Svo, 7 50 

Kremann, R. Application of the Physico-Chemical Theory to Tech- 
nical Processes and Manufacturing Methods. Trans, by H. 

E. Potts Svo, *3 00 

Kretchmar, K. Yarn and Warp Sizing Svo, *5 00 

Laffargue, A, Attack in Trench Warfare i6mo, o 50 

Lallier, E. V. Elementary Manual of the Steam Engine i2mo, *2 00 

Lambert, T. Lead and Its Compounds Svo, *3 50 

Bone Products and Marure? _ . Svo, *3 50 

Lamborn, L. L. Cottonseed Products Svo, *3 00 

— Modern Soaps, Candles, and Glycerin Svo, *7 50 

Lamprecht, R. Recovery Wo k After Pit Fires. Trans, by C. Salter, 

Svo, *5 00 

Lancaster, M. Electric Cooking, Heating and Cleaning Svo, *i 00 

Lanchester, F. W. Aerial Flight. Two Volumes. Svo. 

Vol. I. Aerodynamics *6 00 

Vol . II. Aerodonetics *6 00 



D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 17 

Lanchester, F. W. The Flying Machine 8vo, *3 00 

Industrial Engineering: Present and Post-War Outlook. .. i2mo, i 00 

Lange, K. R. By-Products of Coal-Gas Manufacture i2mo, 2 50 

Lamer, E. T. Principles of Alternating Currents i2mo. *i 25 

La Rue, B. F, Swing Bridges. (Science Series No. 107.) i6mo, o 75 

Lassar-Cohn. Dr. Modern Scientific Chemistry. Trans, by M. M. 

Pattison Muir i2mo, *2 00 

Latimer, L. H., Field, C. J., and Howell, J. W. Incandescent Electric 

Lighting. (Science Series No. 57.) i6mo, 07^ 

Latta, M. N. Handbook of American Gas-Engineering Practice . . .8vo, *4 50 

American Producer Gas Practice 4to, *6 00 

Laws, B. C. Stability and Equilibrium of Floating Bodies 8vo, *3 50 

Lawson, W. R. British Railways. A Financial and Commercial 

Survey 8vo, 2 00 

Leask, A. R. Breakdowns at Sea i2mo, 2 00 

Refrigerating Machinery i2mo, 2 00 

Lecky, S. T. S. "Wrinkles" in Practical Navigation 8vo, 10 00 

Pocket Edition i2mo, 5 00 

Danger Angle i6mo, 2 50 

Le Doux, M. Ice-Making Machines. (Science Series No. 46.).i6mo, o 75 

Leeds, C. C. Mechanical Drawing for Trade Schools oblong 4to, *2 00 

Mechanical Drawing for High and Vocational Schools 4to, *i 25 

Lefevre, L. Architectural Pottery. Trans, by H. K. Bird and W. M. 

Binns 4to, *7 00 

Lehner, S. Ink Manufacture. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson.8vo, *2 50 

Lemstrom, S. Electricity in Agriculture and Horticulture 8vo, *i 50 

Letts, E. A. Fundamental Problems in Chemistry 8vo, *2 00 

Le Van, W. B. Steam-Engine Indicator. (Science Series No. 78).i6mo, o 75 

Lewes, V. B. Liquid and Gaseous Fuels. (Westminster Series.) . .8vo, *2 00 

Carbonization of Coal 8vo, *5 00 

Lewis, L. P. Railway Signal Engineering 8vo, *3 50 

Lewis Automatic Machine Rifle ; Operation of i6mo, *o 60 

Licks, H. E. Recreations in Mathematics i2mo, *i 25 

Lieber, B. F. Lieber's Five Letter American Telegraphic Code .Svo, *i5 00 

Spanish Edition Svo, *i5 00 

French Edition 8vo, *i5 00 

Terminal Index . Svo, *2 50 

Lieber's Appendix folio, *i5 00 

Handy Tables 4to, *2 50 

Bankers and Stockbrokers' Code and Merchants and Shippers' 

Blank Tables Svo, *i5 00 

100.000,000 Combination Code Svo, *io 00 

Engineering Code Svo, *i2 50 

Livermore, V. P., and Williams, J. How to Become a Competent Motor- 
man i2mo, *i 00 

Livingstone, R. Design and Construction of Commutators Svo, *3 00 

Mechanical Design and Constniction of Generators Svo, *3 50 

Lloyd, S. L. Fertilizer Materials i2mo, 2 00 

Lobben, P. Machinists' and Draftsmen's Handbook Svo, 2 50 

Lockwood, T. D. Electricity^ Magnetism, and Electro-telegraph . . . Svo, 2 50 
Electrical Measurement and the Galvanometer i2mo, o 75 



l8 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Lodge, O- J. Elementary Mechanics i2mo, i 50 

Signalling Across Space without Wires 8vo, *2 00 

Loewenstein, L. C, and Crissey, C. P. Centrifugal Pumps *4 50 

Lomax, J. W. Cotton Spinning i2mo, i 50 

Lord, R. T. Decorative and Fancy Fabrics Svo, *3 50 

Loring, A. E. A Handbook of the Electromagnetic Telegraph . 

(Science Series No. 39.) i6mo, o 75 

Low, D. A. Applied Mechanics (Elementary) i6mo, o 80 

Lubschez, B. J. Perspective i2mo, *i 50 

Lucke, C. E. Gas Engine Design Svo, *3 00 

Power Plants: Design, Efficiency, and Power Costs. 2 vols. 

{In Preparation.) 

Luckiesh, M. Color and Its Application Svo, "^'"i 00 

Light and Shade and Their Applications Svo, *2 50 

Lunge, G. Coal-tar and Ammonia. Three Volumes Svo, ''25 co 

Technical Gas Analysis Svo, *4 50 

— — Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali. Four Volumes. . . .Svo, 

Vol. I. Sulphuric Acid. In three parts *iS 00 

Vol. I. Supplement Svo, 5 00 

Vol. II. Salt Cake, Hydrochloric Acid and Leblanc Soda. In two 

par:': {In Press.) 

Vol. Ill Ammonia Soda (In Press.) 

Vol. IV Electrolytic Methods (In Press.) 

Technical Chemists* Handbook i2mo, leather, *4 00 

Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis. Trans, by C. A. Keane 

in collaboration with the corps of specialists. 

VoL I. In two parts Svo, *i5 00 

Vol. II. In two parts Svo, *i8 00 

Vol. III. In two parts Svo, ""iS 00 

The set (3 vols.) complete *5o 00 

Luquer, L. M. Minerals in Rock Sections Svo, *r 50 

MacBride, J. D. A Handbook of Practical Shipbuilding, 

i2mo, fabrikoid, 2 00 

Macewen, H. A. Food Inspection Svo, *2 50 

Mackenzie, N. F. Notes on Irrigation Works Svo, *2 50 

Mackie, J. How to Make a Woolen Mill Pay Svo, *2 00 

Maguire, Wm. R. Domestic Sanitary Drainage and Plumbing . . . Svo, 4 00 

Malcolm, H. W. Submarine Telegraph Cable 8 50 

Mallet, A. Compound Engines. Trans, by R. R. Buel. (Science Series 

No. 10.) i6mo, 

Kansfield, A. N. Electro-magnets. (Science Series No. 64.)..i6mo, o 75 

Marks, E. C. R. Construction of Cranes and Lifting Machinery. i2mo, *2 75 

Construction and Working of Pumps i2mo, 

Manufacture of Iron and Steel Tubes i2mo, *2 00 

Mechanical Engineering Materials i2mo. *i 50 

Mgrks, G. C. Hydraulic Power Engineering Svo, 4 50 

Inventions, Patents and Designs i2mo, *i 00 

Marlow, T. G. Drying Machinery and Practice Svo, *s 00 



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D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 19 

Marsh, C. F. Concise Treatise on Reinforced Concrete 8vo, *2 50 

. Reinforced Concrete Compression Member Diagram. Mounted on 

Cloth Boards *i . 50 

Marsh, C. F., and Dunn, W. Manual of Reinforced Concrete and Con- 
crete Block Construction i6mo, fabrikoid (/// Press.) 

Marshall, W. J., and Sankey, H. R. Gas Engines. (Westminster Series.) 

8vo, 

Martin, G. Triumphs and Wonders of Modern Chemistry 8vo, 

Modern Chemistry and Its Wonders 8vo, 

Martin, N. Properties and Design of Reinforced Concrete i2mo, 

Martin, W. D. Hints to Engineers i2mo, 

Massie, W. W., and Underbill, C. R. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. 

i2mo, 
Mathot, R. E. Internal Combustion Engines 8vo, 

Maurice, W. Electric Blasting Apparatus and Explosives 8vo, 

Shot Firer's Guide Svo, 

Maxwell, F. Sulphitation in White Sugar y.anufacture i2mo, 3 75 

Maxwell, J. C. Matter and Motion. (Science Series No. 36.). 

i6mo, o 75 
Maxwell, W. H., and Brown, J. T. Encyclopedia of Municipal and Sani- 
tary Engineering 4to, *io 00 

Mayer, A. M. Lecture Notes on Physics Svo, 

Mayer, C, and Slippy, J. C. Telephone Line Construction Svo, 

McCullough, E. Practical Surveyiag i2mo, 

Engineering Work in Cities and Towns Svo, 

Reinforced Concrete lamo, 

McCullough, R. S. Mechanical Theory of Heat Svo, 

McGibbon, W. C. Indicator Diagrams for Marine Engineers Svo, 

Marine Engineers' Drawing Book oblong 4to, 

McGibbon, W. C. Marine Engineers Pocketbook lamo, 

Mcintosh, J. G. Technology of Sugar Svo, 

Industrial Alcohol Svo, 

Manufacture of Varnishes and Kindred Industries. Three Volumes. 

Svo. 

Vol. I. Oil Crushing, Refining and Boiling 

Vol. II. Varnish Materials and Oil Varnish Making *5 00 

Vol.. III. Spirit Varnishes and Materials *6 00 

M:Kay, C. W. Fundamental Principles of the Telephone Business. 

Svo. {In Press.) 

McKillop, M., and McKillop, A. D. Efficiency Methods i2mo, i 50 

M:Knight, J. D., and Brown, A. W. Marine Multitubular Boilers... *2 50 
McMaster, J. B. Bridge and Tunnel Centres, (Science Series No. 20.) 

i6mo, o 75 

McMechen, F. L. Tests for Ores, Minerals and Metals i2mo, *i 00 

McPherson, J. A. Water-works Distribution Svo, 25c 

""^"de, A. Modern Gas Works Practice Svo, *S 50 

Melick, C. W. Dairy Laboratory Guide i2mo, *i 25 

'Mentor." Self-Instruction for Students in Gas Supply. i2mo. 

Elements ry 2 50 

Advanced 2 50 

Me-ck, E. Chemical Reagents ; Their Purity and Tests. Trans, by 

H. E. Schenck Svo, i 00 

Meriva!e, J. H. Notes and Formulae for Mining Students i2mo, i 50 

Merritt, Wm. H. Field Testing for Gold and Silver. .. .i6mo, leather, 2 00 



2 


00 


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00 


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50 



20 D. VAN KOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Mertens. Tactics and Technique of River Crossings. Translated by 

W. Kruger 8vo, 2 50 

Mierzinski, S. Waterproofing of Fabrics. Trans, by A. Morris and H. 

Robson 8vo, *2 50 

Miessner, B. F. Radio Dynamics i2mo, *2 00 

Miller, G. A. Determinants, (cscience Series No 105.) i6mo, 

Miller, W. J. Introduction to Historical Geology i2mo, *2 00 

Milroy, M. E. W. Home Lace-making i2mo, *i 00 

Mills, C. N. Elementary Mechanics for Engineers 8vo, *i 00 

Mitchell, C. A. Mineral and Aerated Waters. 8vo, *3 00 

Mitchell, C. A., and Prideaux, R. M. Fibres Used in Textile and AUied 

Industries Svo, 3 50 

Mitchell, C. F., and G. A. Building Construction and Drawing. i2mo. 

Elementary Course *i 50 

Advanced Course *2 50 

Monckton, C. C. F. Radiotelegraphy. (Westminster Series.) Svo, *2 00 

Monteverde, R. D. Vest Pocket Glossary of English-Spanish, Spanish- 
English Technical Terms 64mo, leather, *i 00 

Montgomery, J. H. Electric Wiring Specifications i6mo, *i 00 

Moore, E. C. S New Tables for the Complete Solution of Ganguillet and 

Kr tter's Formula Svo, *6 00 

Moore, Harold. Liquid Fuel for Inte-nal Combustion Engines. . Svo, 5 00 
Morecroft, J. H., and Hehre, F. W. Short Course in Electrical Testing. 

8vc, 

Morgan, A. P. Wireless Telegraph Apparatus for Amateurs i2mo, 

Moses, A. J. The Characters of Crystals Svo, 

and Parsons, C. L. Elements of Mineralogy Svo, 

Moss, S, A. Elements of Gas Engine Design, (Science Series No. 

121/) i5mo, 

The Lay-out of Corliss Valve Gears. (Science Series No. 119.) 

i6mo, 

Mulford, A. C. Boundaries and Landmarks i2mo, 

MuUin, J. P. Modem Moulding and Pattern-making i2mo, 

Munby, A. E. Chemistry and Physics of Building Materials. (West- 
minster Series.) Svo, 

Murphy, T. G. Practical Mining i6mo, 

Murray, J. A. Soils and Manures. (Westminster Series.) Svo, 

Nasmith, J. The Student's Cotton Spinning. Svo, 

Recent Cotton Mill Construction i2mo, 

Neave, G. B., and Heilbron, L M. Identification of Organic Compoimds. 

i2mo, 

Neilson, R. M. Aeroplane Patents Svo, 

Nerz, F. Searchlights. Trans, by C. Rodgers Svo, 

Neuberger, H., and Noalhat, H. Technology of Petroleum. Trans, by 

J. G. Mcintosh Svo, 

Newall, J. W. Drawing, Sizing and Cutting Bevel-gears Svo, 

Newbigin, M. I., and Flett, J. S. James Geikie, the Man and the 

Geologist Svo, 

Newbeging, T, Handbook for Gas Engineers and Managers Svo, 

Newell, F. II., and Drayer, C. E. Engineering as a Career. .i2mo, cloth, 

paper, 
Nicol, G. Ship Construction and Calculations Svo, 

Nipher, F. E. Theory of Magnetic Measurements i2mo, 



*I 


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00 


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75 





75 


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00 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 21 

^isbet, H. Grammar of Textile Design 8vo, 7 50 

Nolan, H. The Teleseope. (^Science Series No. 51.) i6mo, o 75 

Norie, J. W. Epitome of Navigation {2 Vols.) octavo, 15 00 

A Complete Set of Nautical Tables with Explanations at Their 

Use octavo, 6 50 

North, H. B. Laboratory Experiments in General Chemistry i2mo, *i 00 

O'Coonor, H. The Gas Engineer's Pocketbook i2mo, leather, 3 50 

Ohm, G. S., and Lockwood, T. D. Galvanic Circvit Translated by 

William Francis (Science Series No. 102.) iGmo, o 75 

Olsen, J. C. Text-book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, 3 50 

Olsson, A. Motor Control, in Turret Turning and Gun Elevating. (U. S. 

Navy Electrical Series, No. i.) i2mo, paper, *o 50 

Ormsbj^, M. T. M. Surveying i2mo, 2 00 

Oudin, M. A. Standard Polyphase Apparatus and Systems 8vo, *3 00 

Owen, D. Recent Physical Research 8vo, 

Pakes, W. C. C, and Nankivell, A. T. The Science of Hygiene . .8vo, *i 75 

Palaz, A. Industrial Photometry. Trans, by G. W. Patterson, Jr. . 8vo, *4 00 

Palmer, A. R. Electrical Experiments i2mo, o 75 

Magnetic Measurements and Experiments i2mo, o 75 

Pamely, C. Colliery Manager's Handbook 8vo, *io 00 

Parker, P. A. M. The Control of Water 8vo, *5 00 

Parr, G. D. A. Electrical Engineering Measuring Instruments. .. .8vo, *3 50 
Parry, E. J. Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Perfumes. 

Foods and Drugs. Two Volumes. 

Vol. I. Monograghs on Essen«tial Oils *9 00 

Vol. II, Constituents of Essential Oils, Analysis 

and Coste, J. H. Chemistry of Pigments Svo, *5 00 

Parry, L. Notes on Alloys Svo, "3 50 

Metalliferous Wastes Svo, *2 50 

Analysis of Ashes and Alloys Svo, *2 50 

Parry, L. A. Risk and Dangers of Various Occupations Svo, *3 50 

Parshall, H. F., and Hobart, H. M. Armature Windings 4to, *7 50 

Electric Railway Engineering ^to, *7 50 

Parsons, J. L. Land Drainage Svo, *i 50 

Parsons, S, J Malleable Cast Iron Svo, *2 50 

Partington, J. R. Higher Mathematics for Chemical Students. .i2mo, *2 00 

• Textbook of Thermodynamics Svo, *4 00 

The Alkali Industry Sve, 3 00 

Passmore, A. C. Technical Terms Used in Architecture Svo, *3 50 

Patchell, W. H. Electric Power in Mines Svo, *4 00 

Palerson, G. W. L. Wiring Calculations i2mo, *2 50 

Electric Mine Signalling Installations i2mo, *i 50 

Patterson, D. The Color Printing of Carpet Yarns Svo, ^3 50 

Color Matching on Textiles Svo, *3 50 

Textile Color Mixing 8vo, *3 50 

Paulding, C. P. Condensation of Steam in Covered and Bare Pipes Svo, *2 00 

Transmission of Heat through Cold-storage Insulation 12 mo, *i 00 

Payne, D. W. Iron Founders' Handbook Svo, *4 00 

Peddie, R. A. Engineering and Metallurgical Books i2mo, *i 50 

Peirce, B System of Analytic Mechanics 4to, 10 00 

Linnear Associative Algebra 4to, 3 00 

Peodred, V The Railway Locomotive. (Westminster Series.)- • . . 8vo, *2 00 



+1 


oo 


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50 


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00 


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22 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Perkin, F. M. Practical Methods of Inorganic Chemistry i2mo, 

Perrin, J. Atoms 8vo, 

and Jaggers, E. M. Elementary Chemistry lamo, 

Perrine, F. A. C. Conductors for Electrical Distribution 8vo, 

Petit, G. White Lead and Zinc White Paints. 8vo, 

Petit, R. How to Build an Aeroplane. Trans, by T. O'B. Hubbard, and 

J. H. Ledeboer 8vo, 

Pettit, Lieut, J. S. Graphic Processes. (Science Series No. 76.) .i6mo, 
Philbrick, P. H. Beams and Girders. (Science Series No. 88.) . . . i6mo, 

Phillips, J. Gold Assaying 8vo, 

Dangerous Goods 8vo, 

Phin, J. Seven Follies of Science i2mo, 

Pickworth, C. N. The Indicator Handbook. Two Volumes. . i2mo, each, 

Logarithms for Beginners i2mo. boards, 

The Slide Rule lamo, 

Pilcher, R. B., and Butler-Jones, F. What Industry Owes to Chemical 

Science 1 2mo, 

Plattner's Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis. Eighth Edition, revised. Trans. 

by H. B. Cornwall 8vo, *4 00 

Plympton, G. W. The Aneroid Barometer. (Science Series No. 35.) 

i6mo, 

How to Become an Engineer. (Science Series No. ioo.)...i6mo, 

Van Nostrand's Table Book. (Science Series No. 104.) . . . . i6mo, 

Pochet, M, L. Steam Injectors. Translated from the French. (Science 

Series No. 29.) i6mo. 

Pocket Logarithms to Four Places. (Science Series No. 65.) . . . i6mo., 

leather, 

Polleyn, F. Dressings and Finishings for Textile Fabrics Svo, 

Pope, F. G. Organic Chemistry i2mo. 

Pope, F. L. Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph Svo, 

Popplewell, W. C. Prevention of Smoke Svo, 

Strength of Materials Svo, 

Porritt, B. D. The Chemistry of Rubber. (Chemical Monographs, 

No. 3.) i2mo, 

Porter, J. R. Helicopter Flying Machine . lamo. 

Potts, H. E. Chemistry of the Rubber Industry. (Outlines of Indus- 
trial Chemistry) Svo, 

Practical Compounding of Oils, Tallows and Grease Svo, 

Pratt, K. Boiler Draught i2mo, 

— — High Speed Steam Engines Svo, 

Pray, T., Jr. Twenty Years with the Indicator Svo, 

Steam Tables and Engine Constant Svo, 

Prelini, C. Earth and Rock Excavation Svo, 

Graphical Determination of Earth Slopes Svo, 

' Tunneling. New Edition Svo, 

Dredging. A Practical Treatise Svo, 

Prescott, A. B. Organic Analysis Svo, 

Prescott, A. B., and Johnson, O. C. Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Svo, 
Prescott, A. B., and Sullivan, E. C. First Book in Qualitative Chemistry. 

i2mo, 

Prideaux, E. B. R. Problems in Physical Chemistry Svo, 

The Theory and Use of Indicators Svo, 

Primrose, G. S. C. Zinc. (Metallurgy Series.) (In Press) 






75 





75 





75 





75 





75 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 23 

Prince, G. T. Flow of Water i2mo, *2 00 

Prost, E. Manual of Chemical Analysis 8vo, & oo 

Pull, E. Modern Steam Boilers 8vo, 5 00 

Pullen, W. W. F. Application of Graphic Methods to the Design of 

Structures i2mo, *2 50 

Injectors: Theory, Construction aqd Working i2mo, *2 00 

Indicator Diagrams 8vo, *2 50 

Engine Testing Svo, *5 50 

Putsch, A. Gas and Coal-dust Firing Svo, *2 50 

Pynchon, T. R. Introduction to Chemical Physics Svo, 3 00 

Rafter, G. W. Mechanics of Ventilation. (Science Series No. 33.).i6mo, o 75 

Potable Water. (Science Series No. 103.) i6mo, o 75 

Treatment of Septic Sewage. (Science Series No. ii8.)..i6mo, o 75 

Rafter, G. W., and Baker, M. N. Sewage Disposal in the United States. 

4to, *6 00 

Raikes, H. P. Sewage Disposal Works Svo, *4 00 

Randau, P. Enamels and Enamelling Svo, *5 00 

Rankine, W. J. M. Applied Mechanics Svo, 5 00 

Civil Engineering Svo, 6 50 

Machinery and Millwork Svo, 5 00 

The Steam-engine and Other Prime Movers Svo, 5 00 

Rankine, W. J, M., and Bamber, E. F. A Mechanical Text-book Svo, 3 50 

Ransome, W. R. Freshman Mathematics i2mo, *i 35 

Raphael, F. C. Localization of Faults in Electric Light and Power Mains. 

Svo, 3 50 

Rasch, E. Electric Arc Phenomena. Trans, by K. Tornberg svo, *2 00 

Rathbone, R. L. B. Simple Jewellery Svo, *2 00 

Rateau, A. Flow of Steam through Nozzles and Orifices. Trans, by H. 

B. Brydon Svo *i 50 

Rausenberger, F. The Theory of the Recoil Guns Svo, *5 00 

Rautenstrauch, Wo Notes on the Elements of Machine Design. Svo, boards, *i 50 
Rautenstrauch, W., and Williams, Jo T. Machine Drafting and Empirical 
Design. 

Part I. Machine Drafting Svo, *i 25 

Part II. Empirical Design {In Preparation.) 

Raymond, E. B. Alternating Current Engineering i2mo, *2 50 

Rayner, H. Silk Throwing and Waste Silk Spinning Svo, 

Recipes for the Color, Paint, Varnish, Oil, Soap and Drysaltery Trades, 

Svo, *5 00 

Recipes for Flint Glass Making i2mo, *5 00 

Redfem, J. B., and Savin, J. Bells, Telephones (Installation Manuals 

Series.) i6mo, *o 50 

Redgrove, H. S. Experimental Mensuration i2mo, *i 25 

Redwood, B. Petroleum. (Science Series No. 92.) i6rao, o 75 

Reed, S. Turbines Applied to Marine Propulsion *5 00 

Reed's Engineers' Handbook Svo, *g 00 

— — Key to the Nineteenth Edition of Reed's Engineers' Handbook. .Svo, 4 00 

Useful Hints to Sea -going Engineers i2mo, 3 00 

Reid, E. E. Introduction to Research in Organic Chemistry. (In Press.) 
Reinhardt, C. W. Lettering for Draftsmen, Engineers, and Students. 

oblong 4to, boards, i 00 



24 



D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 



Reinhardt, C. W. The Technic of Mechanical Drafting, 

oblong, 4to, boards, *i oo 
Reiser, F. Hardening and Tempering of Steel. Trans, by A. Morris and 

H. Robson i2mo, -^t. 50 

Reiser, N. Faults in the Manufacture of Woolen Goods. Trans, by A. 

Morris and H. Robson 8vo, 

Spinning and Weaving Calculations 8vj, 

Renwick, W. G. Marble and Marble Working 8vo, 

Reuleaux, F. The Constructor. Trans, by H. H. Suplee 4to, 

Rey, Jean. The Range of Electric Searchlight Projectors 8vo,. 

Reynolds, 0., and Idell, F. E. Triple Expansion Engines. (Science 

Series No. 99.) i6mo, 

Rhead, G. F. Simple Structural Woodwork i2mo, 

Rhead, G. W. British Pottery Marks 8vo, 

Rhodes, H. J. Art of Lithography 8vo, 

Rice, J. M., and Johnson, W. W. A New Method of Obtaining the Differ- 
ential of Functions i2mo, 

Richards, W. A. Forging of Iron and Steel lamo, 

Richards, W. A., and North, H. B. Manual of Cement Testing. . . . i2mo, 

Richardson, J. The Modern Steam Engine 8vo, 

Richardson, S. S. Magnetism and Electricity i2mo, 

Rideal, S. Glue and Glue Testing 8vo, 

Riesenberg, F. The Men on Deck i2mo, 

Standard Seamanship for the Merchant Marine. lamo (In Press.) 

Riminer, E. J. Boiler Explosions, Collapses and Mishaps 8vo, 

Rings, F. Reinforced Concrete in Theory and Practice lamo, 

Reinforced Concrete Bridges 4to, 

Ripper, W Course of Instruction in Machine Drawing folio, 

Roberts, F. C. Figure of the Earth. (Science Series No. 7g.)..i6mo, 
Roberts, J., Jr. Laboratory Work in Electrical Engineering Svo, 

Robertson, L. S. Water-tube Boilers Svo, 

Robinson, J. B. Architectural Composition Svo, 

Robinson, S. W. Practical Treatise on the Teeth of Wheels. (Science 

Series No. 24. ) i6mo, 

Railroad Economics. (Science Series No. 59. ) i6mo, 

Wrought Iron Bridge Members. (Science Series No. 6o.)..i6mo, 

Robson, J. H. Machine Drawing and Sketching 8vo, 

Roebling, J. A. Long and Short Span Railway Bridges folio, 

Rogers, A. A Laboratory Guide of Industrial Chemistry 8vo, 

■ Elements of Industrial Chemistry i2mo, 

Manual of Industrial Chemistry 8vo, 

Rogers, F. Magnetism of Iron Vessels. (Science Series No. 30.) 

i(5mo, o 75 
Rohland, P. Colloidal and Crystalloidal State of Matter. Trans, by 

W. J. Britland and H. E. Potts i2mo, *i 25 

Rollinson, C. Alphabets Oblong, i2mo, *i 00 

Rose, J. The Pattern-makers' Assistant Svo, 2 50 

— ^ — Key to Engines and Engine-running i2mo, 2 50 

Rose, T. K. The Precious Metals. (Westminster Series.) Svo, *2 00 

Rosenhain, W. Glass Manufacture. (Westminster Series.) Svo, *2 00 

Physical Metallurgy, An Introduction to. (Metallurgy Series.) 

8vo, *3 50 

Roth, W. A. Physical Chemistry 8 vo, *2 00 



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D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 25 

Rowan, F. J. Practical Physics of the Modern Steam-boiler 8vo, *3 00 

• and Idell, F. E. Boiler Incrustation and Corrosion. (Science 

Series No. 27.) i6mo, o 75 

Roxburgh, W. General Foundry Practice. (Westminster Series. » .8vo, *2 00 

Ruhmer, E. Wireless Telephony. Trans, by J. Erskine-Murray. .8vo, *4 50 

Russell, A. Theory of Electric Cables and Networks 8vo, *3 00 

Rust, A. Practical Tables for Navigators and Aviators Svo, 3 50 

Rutley, F, Elements of Mineralogy i2mo, ''i 25 

Sandeman, E. A. Notes on the Manufacture of Earthenware. .. i2mo, 

Sanford, P. G. Nitro-explosives Svo, 

Saiinders, C. H. Handbook of Practical Mechanics i6mo, 

leather, 

Bayers, H. M. Brakes for Tram Cars Svo, 

Scheele, C. W. Chemical Essays Svo, 

Scheithauer, W. Shale Oils and Tars Svo, 

Scherer, R. Casein. Trans, by C. Salter Svo, 

Schidrowitz, P. Rubber, Its Production and Industrial Uses Svc, 

Schindler, K. Iron and Steel Construction Works :2mo, 

Schmall, C. N. First Course in Analytic Geometry, Plane and Solid. 

i2mo, half leather, 

and Shack, S. M. Elements of Plane Geometry i2mo, 

Schmeer, L. Flow of Water Svo, 

Schumann, F. A Manual of Heating and Ventilation. ,. .i2mo, leather, 

Schwarz, E. H. L. Causal Geology # Svo, 

Schweizer, V. Distillations of Resins &vo, 

Scott, A. H. Reinforced Concrete in Practice i2mo, 

Scott, W. W. Qualitative Analysis. A Laboratory Manual. New 

Edition 2 50 

Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis Svo, *6 00 

Scribner, J. M. Engineers' and Mechanics' Companion. .i6mo, leather, i 50 
Scudder, H. Electrical Conductivity and Ionization Constants of 

Organic Compounds Svo, *3 00 

Seamanship, Lectures on lamo, 2 00 

Searle, A. B. Modern Brickmaking Svo (In Press ) 

Cement, Concrete and Bricks Svo, *6 50 

Searle, G. M. "Sumners' Method." Condensed and Improved. 

(Science Series No. 124.) i5mo, c 75 

Seaton, A. E. Manual of Marine Engineering Svo 8 oe 

Seaton, A. E., and Rounthwaite, H. M. Pocket-book of Marine Enei- 

neering i6mo, le??.ther, 5 00 

Seeligmann, T., Torrilhon, G. L., and Falconnet, H. India Rubber and 

Gutta Percha. Trans, by J. G. Mcintosh B^o, "f 00 

Seidell, A. Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic- Substances. .. Svo, 3 00 

Seligman, R. Aluminum. (Metallurgy Series.) (hi Press.) 

Sellew, W. H. Steel Rails 4tc, *io 00 

Railway Maintenance Engineering i2mo, *2 50 

Senter, G. Outlines of Physical Chemistry i2mo, *2 50 

Text -book of Inorganic Chemistry i2mo, *3 00 

Sever, G. F. Electric Engineering Experiments Svo, boards, *i 00 

Sever, G. F., and Townsend, F. Laboratory and Factory Tests in Elec- 
trical Engineering 8vo, *2 50 



3 


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26 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Sewall, C. H. Wireless Telegraphy 8vo, 

Lessons in Telegraphy i2mo, 

Sewell, T. The Construction of Dynamos 8vo, 

Sexton, A. H. Fuel and Refractory Materials i2mo, 

. Chemistry of the Materials of Engineering ismo, 

• Alloys (Non-Ferrous) 8vo, 

Sexton, A. H., and Primrose, J. S. G. The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel. 

Bvo, 

Seymour, A. Modern Printing Inks Svo, 

Shaw, Henry S. H. Mechanical Integrators. (Science Series No. 83.) 

I'jmo, 

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Chemistry of Compounds Used in Porcelain Manufacture. .. .8vo, 

Shaw, T. R. Driving of Machine Tools i2mo, 

Precision Grinding Machines icmo, 

Shaw, W. N, Forecasting Weather Svo, 

Sheldon, S., and Hausmann, E. Direct Current Machines i2mo, 

Alternating Current Machines lamo, 

Sheldon, S., and Hausmann, E. Electric Traction and Transmission 
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Sherriff, F. F. Oil Merchants' Manual and Oil Trade Ready Reckoner, 

Svo, 

Shields, J. E. Notes on Engineering Construction i2mo, 

Shreve, S. H. Strength of Bridges and Roofs. Svo, 

Shunk, W. F. The Field Engineer i2mo, fabrikoid, 

Simmons, W. H., and Appleton, H. A. Handbook of Soap Manufacture, 

8/0, 

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Simpson, G. The Naval Constructor i2mo, fabrikoid, 

Simpson, W. Foundations Svo. (/;; Press.) 

Sinclair, A. Development of the Locomotive Engine. . . Svo, half leather, 
Sindall, R. W. Manufacture of Paper. (Westminster Series.). .. .8vo, 

Sindall, R. W., and Bacon, W. N. The Testing of Wood Pulp Svo, *2 50 

Sloane, T. O'C. Elementary Electrical Calculations i2mo, *2 00 

Smallwood, J. C. Mechanical Laboratory Methods. (Van Nostrand's 

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Smith, C. A. M. Handbook of Testing, MATERIALS Svo, 

Smith, C. A. M., and Warren, A. G. New Steam Tables Svo, 

Smith, C. F. Practical Alternating Currents and Testing Svo, 

Practical Testing of Dynamos and Motors Svo, 

Smith, F. E. Handbook of Genet-^i ^^^trticlion for Mechan'os . . . i2rno. 

Smith, G. C. Trinitrotoluenes and Mono- and Dinitrotoluenes, Their 

Manufacture and Properties i2mo, 

Smith, H. G. Minerals and the Microscope i2mo, 

Smith, T. r. Manufacture o^ Paint Svo, 

Smith. R. H. Priwcinles of Machine Work , lamo, 

Adv^riced Machine W^rV i2mo, 

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Snell, A. T. Flertric Mofv^ Power Svo, 

Snow, W. G. Pocketbook of Steam Heatinp^ and Vprtilation. (Tti P?r,<;.s\) 

Snow, W. G., and Nolan, T. Ventilation of Buildings. (Science Series 
No c; "> Tomo, 

Soddy, F. Radioactivity Svo, 



*2 


00 


*1 


00 


*3 


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00 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 27 

Solomon, M. Electric Lamps. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 

Somerscales, A. N. Mechanics for Marine Engineers i2mo, *2 00 

Mechanical and Marine Engineering Science 8vo, *5 00 

Sothern, J. W. The Marine Steam Turbine 8^0, *i2 50 

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Sothern, J. W,, and Sothern, R. M. Elementary Mathematics for 

Marine Engineers i2mo, *i 50 

Simple Problems in Marine Engineering Design i2mo, 

Souster, E. G. W. Design of Factory and Industrial Buildings. . .8vu, 4 00 
Southcombe, J. E. Chemistry of the Oil Industries (Outlines of In- 
dustrial Chemistry.) Svo, *3 00 

Soxhlet, D. H. Dyeing and Staining Marble. Trans, by A. Morris and 

H. Robson 8v j, *2 50 

Spangenburg, L. Fatigue of Metals. Translated by S. H. Shreve. 

(Science Series No. 23.) i6mo, o 75 

Specht, G. J., Hardy, A. S., McMaster, J. B., and Walling. Topographical 

Surveying. (Science Series No. 72.) iGmo, 

Spencer, A. S. Design of Steel-Framed Sheds Svo, 

Speyers, C. L. Text-book of Physical Chemistry Svo, 

Spiegel, L. Chemical Constitution and Physiological Action. ( Trans. 

by C. Luedeking and A. C. Boylston.) i2mo, 

Sprague, E. H. Hydraulics 1 2mo, 

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Stability of Masonry i-smo, 

Elementary Mathematics for Engineers . i?mo, 

Stability of Arches i?.mo, 

Strength of Structural Elements i2mo, 

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Stahl, A. W. Transmission of Power. (Science Series No. 28.) . i6mo, 

Stahl, A. W., and Woods, A. T. Elementary Mechanism i2mo, 

Staley, C, and Pierson, G. S. The Separate Sj^stem of Sewerage. . .Svo, 

Standage, H. C. Leatherworker^' Manual Svo, 

Sealing Waxes, Wafers, and Other Adhesives Svo, 

Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes i2mo, 

Stanley, H. Practical Applied Physics (In Press.) 

Stansbie, J. H. Iron and Steel. (Westminster Series.) Svo, 

Steadman, F. M. Unit Photography i2mo, 

Stecher, G. E. Cork. Its Origin and Industrial Uses i2mo, 

Steinheil, A., and Voit, E. Applied Optics Svo, 

Steinman, D. B. Suspension Bridges and Cantilevers. (Science Series 

No. 127.) 075 

Melan's Steel Arches and Suspension Bridges Svo, *3 00 

Stevens, E. J. Field Telephones and Telegraphs i 20 

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Stevens, J. S. Theory of Measurements i2mo, 

Stevenson, J. L. Blast-Furnace Calculations i2mo, leather, 

Stewart, G. Modern Steam Traps i2mo. 

Stiles, A. Tables for Field Engineers . i2mo, 

Stodola, A. Steam Turbines. Trans, by L. C. Loewenstein Svo, 

Stone, H. The Timbers of Commerce Svo, 

Stopes, M. Ancient Plants Svo, 

The Study of Plant Life Svo, 

Sudborough, J. J., and James, T. C. Practical Organic Chemistry. . i2mo, 
Suf fling, E. R. Treatise on the Art of Glass Painting Svo, 






75 


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50 


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50 


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28 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

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8vo, *2 00 
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( Science Series No. 109.) i6mo, o 75 

Swoope, C. W. Lessons in Practical Electricity i2mo, *2 00 

Tailfer, L. Bleaching Linen and Cotton Yarn and Fabrics 8vo, 7 00 

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M a sonry in Civil Engineering 8vo, *2 50 

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i2mo, morocco, 2 oo 
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First Year 

Second Year 

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*7 


50 


7 


50 





75 


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75 


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75 





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Toch, M. Chemistry and Technology of Paints 8vo, 

Materials for Permanent Painting i2mo, 

Tod, J., and McGibbon, W. C. Marine Engineers' Board of Trade 

Examinations 8vo, 

Todd, J., and Whall, W. B. Practical Seamanship 8vo, 

Tonge, J. Coal, i Westminster Series.) 8vo, 

Townsend, F. Alternating Current Engineering 8vo, boards, 

Townsend, J. S. Ionization of Gases by Collision 8vo, 

Transactions of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Svo. 

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Trinks, W., and Housum, C. Shaft Governors. (Science Series No. 122.) 

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Volk, C. Haulage ^nd Winding Appliances Svo, *4 0° 

Von Georgievics, G. Chem'cal Techno1oo:y of Textile Fibres. Trans. 

by C. Salter Svo, 

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(New Edition in Preparation.^ 
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and Alorebra. (Science Series No. 16.) i6mo, 075 

Vosmaer, A. Ozone 8vo, *2 50 






75 


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Whittaker, C. M. The Application of the Coal Tar Dyestuffs. . .8vo, 3 00 

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